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	<title>Trame urbane/Urban Plots &#187; Partnerships, strategie e governance del territorio</title>
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	<description>Come cambiano città e politiche? How do cities and policies change? spunti dalla ricerca di Marco Cremaschi</description>
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		<title>The role of trust and social Regulation in the Integrated Programmes</title>
		<link>http://cremaschi.dipsu.it/partnerships-strategie-e-governance-del-territorio/the-role-of-trust-and-social-regulation-in-the-integrated-programmes/</link>
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		<pubDate>Sat, 24 Oct 2009 13:22:04 +0000</pubDate>
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				<category><![CDATA[In English]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Partnerships, strategie e governance del territorio]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Bagheria]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Disordine]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[mafia]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[politiche]]></category>

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 Bonds of trust, The experience of Urban-Italia Bagheria

Bagheria, novembre 2008 
<p style="text-indent: 14.2pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="en-GB">
<p style="text-indent: 14.2pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">Urban regeneration programmes are not common in Italy; in general, Italian urban policies do not offer a wide spectrum of such experiences. Only in the last twenty years has there been an attempt to turn around the [...]]]></description>
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<address> <span style="color: #000000"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="font-size: small"><em>Bonds of trust, </em>The experience of Urban-Italia Bagheria</span></span></span><br />
</address>
<address><span style="color: #000000"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="font-size: small">Bagheria, novembre 2008</span></span></span> </address>
<p style="text-indent: 14.2pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="en-GB">
<p style="text-indent: 14.2pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="en-GB"><span style="font-size: small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000">Urban regeneration programmes are not common in Italy; in general, Italian urban policies do not offer a wide spectrum of such experiences. Only in the last twenty years has there been an attempt to turn around the dilapidation of poor neighbourhoods, on one hand; and social exclusion, on the other. These two issues do not always coincide, and the historic limit of Italy’s model of intervention is the superimposition (with poor dialogue) of initiatives of urban renewal and social support. Besides, the assessments are still partial, and outcomes have been weakened because the initiatives were discontinuous.</span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="en-GB">
<p style="text-indent: 14.2pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="en-GB"><span style="color: #000000"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="font-size: small">The limits of urban policies, like the policies for the local economic development in regions of the South, have been pinpointed since the beginning. The problems of the city emanate from traditional Italian dualism. One should note that the cities of Southern Italy are the poorest, with the highest rates of unemployment, and the most fragile economies in Italy. In other words, the State and the trust in institutions and collective actions are weaker, due by the way to the distorting presence of organized crime. </span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="en-GB">
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="en-GB"><span style="color: #000000"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="font-size: small">In these conditions, the establishment of programmes of urban regeneration is more than difficult. Therefore, it is worthwhile to question whether the same requirements and models apply, as those adopted by the other programmes to urban regeneration.</span></span></span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="en-GB">
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="en-GB"><span style="font-size: small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000">Therefore, the questions raised by the experience of Bagheria are both general and specific, but they have to be faced before moving on to the discussion of the case-study:</span></span></span></span></p>
<ul>
<li>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="en-GB"><span style="color: #000000"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="font-size: small">the 	first question concerns the nature of the local programme and 	integrated actions, and asks if they can locally challenge general 	problems;</span></span></span></p>
</li>
<li>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="en-GB"><span style="font-size: small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000">the 	second question concerns the compatibility between sophisticated 	models of intervention expected for an urban regeneration programme, 	and the presence of distorted private interests, capable of 	guaranteeing ‘<em>omertà’</em> – an agreement of silence 	– or even support, in a context where the legitimacy of collective 	action is weak;</span></span></span></span></p>
</li>
<li>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="en-GB"><span style="color: #000000"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="font-size: small">finally, 	the third question concerns the implementation of the integrated 	model to building renewal and social actions as requested by the 	Urban experience (and precedent programmes from different 	countries).</span></span></span></p>
</li>
</ul>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="en-GB">
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="en-GB"><span style="color: #000000"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="font-size: small">To address the first question, we must remember that the assumption of the local urban regeneration programmes, such as those for economic development, is to mobilize social capital.</span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="en-GB"><span style="font-size: small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000">This  expectation is common to all the programmes aimed at promoting endogenous development, such as those aimed at the local economy sustained by Structural Funds. </span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="en-GB"><span style="font-size: small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000">In order to promote the social and physical regeneration of the city, the programmes aim to mobilize local participants and resources, and a beneficial circulation of the &#8216;implicit knowledge&#8217; of the depositories. This activation allows ‘dormant’ local resources to be made available, and to create the cultural and social preconditions necessary to begin long-term development projects. In other words, it relies on the conviction that social regulations are unavoidable and decisive preconditions for development, next to and before material factors, the level of public investments, etc. By now, this conviction is commonly accepted as far as the economic development of national economies is concerned; even more so, when it is applied in deprived neighbourhoods, or areas of social and economic disadvantage. Therefore, insufficient or bad social regulations affect the process of economic development, and become a major reason to work on social development. In other words, trust, a certain degree of order, the stability of expectations, and the certainty of rules, are components of social regulations as much as the legal system, infrastructure, credit, </span></span></span></span><span lang="en-GB"><span style="font-size: small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000">enterprises, etc. </span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="en-GB">
<p style="text-indent: 14.2pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="en-GB"><span style="font-size: small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000">Without negating this fundamental assumption, the process of implementing such programmes has shown some limits. The social processes that impinge upon the social capital are fragile and demanding. To get them started, urban policies have to guarantee a resolute and uninterrupted approach that is rare. In other words, all too often programmes happen in a crowded context of competing and diverse initiatives, not all of them fostering the activation of social capital. Often in fact, spending programmes spark the interests of entrepreneurial networks at the margins of legality, which have the capacity to pressure the political system and civil opinions. Likewise, also in this case one can affirm that <em>b</em></span></span></span></span><em><span lang="en-GB"><span style="font-size: small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000">ad money</span></span></span></span></em><span lang="en-GB"><span style="font-size: small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000"><em> drives out good.</em> </span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="en-GB">
<p style="text-indent: 14.2pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="en-GB"><span style="font-size: small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000">The first problem, therefore, would be to eliminate the bad money or, even better, the unfair competition among public initiatives aimed at different targets. The second, more pernicious, regards all mobilization initiatives, and questions the process of the internal generation of social capital. And here lies the problem. Where the economy is weak, and illegal circuits are strong, ‘social capital’ is limited to service dominant positions, and is captured by limited circuits. This perverse form of social capital is embarrassing: it rewards a limited group, and excludes everyone on the outside; it aims to reward egoistic behaviour, and does not represent collective interests. </span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-indent: 14.2pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="en-GB"><span style="font-size: small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000">According to available historic reconstructions, Southern Italy&#8217;s history has been afflicted with a scarcity of <em>universal and public social capital</em>, while it has been characterized by an excess of particular capital, belonging to a small group opposed to the collective, which takes ownership of closed networks. A consequent issue would then be to promote the first and liberate the second, but this involves large political and cultural transformations, which a local programme probably cannot affect. </span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="en-GB">
<p style="text-indent: 14.2pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="en-GB"><span style="font-size: small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000">The response to the second question is connected to the first one. It is difficult to evaluate social capital in areas strongly penetrated by mafia organizations, because of the competition of criminal networks. Besides, the presence of criminal organizations erodes the standard supply of trust, which causes in turn disincentive for any virtuous behaviour, complying either with market or institutional rules. Often, these behaviours self-replicate and multiply, creating room for further deviant developments. </span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="en-GB">
<p style="text-indent: 14.2pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="en-GB"><span style="font-size: small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000">As a consequence, the absence of a specific assessment of urban policies (and of their various social, economic, and territorial outcomes) appears alarming connected with the control of the territory exercised by criminal organizations; as if it were not necessary to take specific precautions in promoting initiatives in areas marked by illegal economics. While, instead, the relevance of the real estate market and land-use is tantamount in mafia&#8217;s investments; as well as the delicate position of land-use developments in sparkling the interests of crime organizations either for ‘logistic’ purposes, or for money laundering. </span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="en-GB"><span style="color: #000000"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="font-size: small"> </span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-indent: 14.2pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="en-GB"><span style="font-size: small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000">A consequence of this observation is that reinforcing legality is a prerequisite of all actions of urban regeneration and development. However, legality is not consistent only with the introduction of normal, fair, and efficient rules, but also in the founding of simple and robust social regulation. Legality is a social practice, above and before a contract. It is <em>constructed</em> in the context made by social actors variously oriented, such as local decision makers, local policeman, civil servants and political parties, social actors and cultural or religious associations. In this broad sense, one can understand the already mentioned focus on the activation of social capital;  both questions require a long term commitment to support local regeneration programmes (and not vice versa, as it happens now). </span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="en-GB">
<p style="text-indent: 14.2pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span style="font-size: small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000"><span lang="en-GB">Finally, the answer for the third question is more general. The requirements of the integrated programmes have not been fully complied with in the implementation process in Italy (and presumably elsewhere). Rather, most of the programmes have often recorded many difficulties in integrating the initiatives. Integration does not mean only the concomitant realization of buildings, infrastructure and service operations, albeit desirable, nor only the balancing of various operations in a common strategic framework, a more difficult, yet preliminary requirement. These are all necessary, but not sufficient conditions, as they translate primarily in a model of inter-</span><span lang="en-US">sector</span><span lang="en-GB"> combination, nuanced according to various aims (functional, operative, partnership).</span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="en-GB">
<p style="text-indent: 14.2pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span style="font-size: small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000"><span lang="en-GB">Another definition, perhaps closer to the original, intent of the integrated programme as a <em>generative</em> action, capable of producing new initiatives as well as accepting old ones; and as an action  open to innovative <em>actors</em> (therefore, not only to the establishment), influenced by processes of participation and inclusion. Such initiatives have a double burden: they have to be </span><em><span lang="en-US">implemented</span><span lang="en-GB"> </span></em><span lang="en-GB">within constraints and deadlines dictated by exogenous, and non negotiable logics; at the same time, they have to connect such logics into a shared <em>vision</em>. Such a complex model insists on the dynamic control of the <em>interdependencies</em> between initiatives and subjects. Both models are highly demanding, more on the technical side the first case, more on the political the second one.  Understandably, such requirements are not easily met by the implemented programmes.</span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="en-GB">
<p style="text-indent: 14.2pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="en-GB"><span style="font-size: small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000">In summary, the answers provided to the three questions cited before, suggest a possible critical contribution to regeneration programmes. Debating them would not only be timely, but necessary, in Italy as well as in Europe. In particular, a comparison is required between programme realization and results; and <em>vice versa</em>, the new issues of this historical moment should be addressed<sup>1</sup>). However, it is necessary to pay a greater attention to the specific problems of the cities of Southern Italy. </span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-indent: 14.2pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="en-GB"><span style="font-size: small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000">From this point of view, the outcomes of this study – the first on Urban-Italia, and the first to investigate issues of development and legality in urban areas – offer a good starting point. </span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="en-GB"><span style="font-size: small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000">Some further comments can clarify the meaning to be drawn from this case-study. Urban Bagheria (as all the Urban Italia programmes) resembles the model implied by the Urban model less than expected; more precisely, it cannot pretend to be (only) an integrated programme. Comparing the Bagheria programme with the European Urban model, some differences strike one as obvious: the weight of infrastructure is predominant; the focus on economic and spatial development is limited; the initiatives fostering social cohesion are scarce, especially from a financial point of view. </span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="en-GB">
<p style="text-indent: 14.2pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="en-GB"><span style="font-size: small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000">But the problem is more general. The Italian &#8216;translation&#8217; of the European Urban programme impinged upon building and infrastructure projects, rather than economic and social projects. One can doubt that this is the intended consequence of a political decision, rather than the interference of the Ministry for Infrastructure being the responsible of the programme; or the inexperience of the municipalities in managing initiatives that were not addressing building development. This element is certainly relevant, although not comforting. </span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="en-GB">
<p style="text-indent: 14.2pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="en-GB"><span style="font-size: small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000">Apart from these considerations, this report offers a deeper interpretation. The Urban programme of Bagheria was aimed at reconstructing elements of trust, and because of this it has privileged feasible yet incisive initiatives. About these, some features need to be remembered:</span></span></span></span></p>
<ul>
<li>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="en-GB"><span style="color: #000000"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="font-size: small">the 	programme operated on the performances of the Public Administration 	(its transparency, and efficiency);</span></span></span></p>
</li>
<li>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="en-GB"><span style="color: #000000"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="font-size: small">it 	invested some exemplary dimensions, crucial to the local context, of 	the relationship between the public officers and citizens (land 	control, building subsidies etc.);</span></span></span></p>
</li>
<li>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="en-GB"><span style="font-size: small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000">it 	contributed to the repossession of public space, and parts of the 	cultural heritage (such as the Villas), not only for their economic 	value, but because they constitute symbolic moments in a bond of 	trust;</span></span></span></span></p>
</li>
<li>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="en-GB"><span style="color: #000000"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="font-size: small">finally, 	it contributed to the establishment and reinforcement of a few 	networks of conviviality and cultural exchange.</span></span></span></p>
</li>
</ul>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="en-GB"><span style="font-size: small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000">If accepted, this reconstruction may contribute to a wider evaluation of the outcomes of the programme. </span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="en-GB">
<p style="text-indent: 14.2pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span style="font-size: small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000"><span lang="en-GB">The report illustrated the <em>pragmatic</em> meaning assumed by the programme, manifested in some significant outcomes among obvious and deep difficulties. Urban Bagheria demonstrates, in a case of relatively modest dimensions, the basic necessity to reconcile contradictory intentions: to favour visible works, but to commit to resolve grave problems; to address emerging problems, but to explore also those that are kept hidden; to restore transparency, and to simultaneously guarantee speed and efficiency of public investment; to give dignity to public officers contribution, while daily </span><span lang="en-US">unraveling</span><span lang="en-GB"> political quarrels&#8230;</span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="en-GB"><span style="color: #000000"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="font-size: small">In general, local public actions clash with ordinary issues of administrative work. In their relative simplicity, they seem semi-insurmountable when they have to be dealt with in urgent conditions, political weakness, and media exposure. Activities such as handling bids, propagating directives, organizing audits and surveillance, are all preliminary operations to programmes such as Urban, that these programmes obviously cannot control, and rarely influence. Their efficiency is not a specific problem, but it becomes a crucial factor within time constraints and efficiency of the entire programme. </span></span></span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="en-GB">
<p style="text-indent: 14.2pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="en-GB"><span style="font-size: small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000">The second remark, a bit more significant, indicates that European urban regeneration programmes, of which Urban Bagheria is also a part, are difficult to interpret unless their hybrid nature is recognised. Such hybridization is the result of the ‘neo-liberal inflection’ of the welfare state, which leads to relatively new local consequences. In other words, it would be useless to compare the programme with a full scale long-term public investment, as those implemented in post-war times, or to the de-regulative actions adopted in the ‘90s, when every initiative was apparently left to market forces. </span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="en-GB"><span style="color: #000000"> </span></p>
<p style="text-indent: 14.2pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="en-GB"><span style="font-size: small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000">Therefore, these programmes show </span><span style="color: #000000">the gradual mix of the two models, with some unpredictable combinations: the state maintains an important entrepreneurial role, and the public intervention builds the institutional foundations of the market; yet, public actions recognize the market, while searching to bend it to collective interests to counterbalance its narrow economic focus; from the social point of view, in short, providing opportunities for individuals has become a higher priority than fostering aggregated development. </span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="en-GB" align="justify">
<p style="text-indent: 14.2pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="en-GB"><span style="font-size: small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000">There are two principal conclusions to this study. </span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-indent: 14.2pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="en-GB"><span style="font-size: small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000">The first is that the lack of effectiveness of the integrated programmes, as well as of other local regeneration initiatives, depends greatly on aggregated national conditions, and has to be dealt with at that level. </span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-indent: 14.2pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="en-GB"><span style="font-size: small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000">The second is that through these special programmes, exemplary ordinary investments have been realised, a little paradox that invites a reverse look. Upon the small bit of capital offered by these realisations, it may be possible to build some strategic <em>local</em> programme: it will be possible to intervene on the urban environment for the reduction of energy consumption and of pollution; for the improvement of the public transportation system. Il may also facilitate the social integration of immigrants, the extension of civil rights, the supply of social housing, for the development of cultural assets, resources, and tourist attractions, the improvement of labour capacities and, vice versa, the offer of advanced professional services. All these elements are largely influenced by the leadership put in motion by Urban, and if well adjusted, can contribute  to the development and the competitive turn of the country. </span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-indent: 14.2pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="en-GB">
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="en-GB">
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="en-GB"><span style="color: #000000"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="font-size: small"><strong>Notes</strong></span></span></span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="en-GB">
<p style="text-indent: 14.2pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="en-GB"><span style="font-size: x-small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000">1. The working Group activated thank to the collaboration between the Department of Urban studies, and the Urban Programme of Bagheria, has already produced some studies beside this report. See by M. Cremaschi, <span style="font-style: normal">ed.</span>, <span style="font-style: normal">Tracce di quartiere, il legame sociale nelle città che cambia</span>, Milan, Angeli, 2008; “Limiti e prospettive dell&#8217;azione locale” (“Limits and Perspectives of Local Actions”), <span style="font-style: normal">Territorio, </span>46, 2008, with contributions by Donzelot, De Leonardis, Tosi and Bricocoli; “Legalità debole, criminalità e periferie” (“Weak Legality, Criminality and the urban outskirts”), a section from a further issue of <span style="font-style: normal">Territorio</span>, with other contributions by Peraldi, Bagaglini, Sales.</span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="it-IT"><span style="color: #000000"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="font-size: x-small"><strong>Riferimenti bibliografici</strong></span></span></span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="it-IT">
<p style="margin-left: 48pt;text-indent: -48pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="it-IT"><span style="font-size: x-small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000">Bourdieu P. (1995), <em>Ragioni pratiche</em>, il Mulino, Bologna</span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 48pt;text-indent: -48pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="it-IT"><span style="font-size: x-small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000">Cremaschi M. (2001), <em>Programmi integrati. Opportunità e vincoli</em>, Formez/ Donzelli Editore, Roma </span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 48pt;text-indent: -48pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="it-IT"><span style="font-size: x-small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000">Cremaschi M. (2001a), <em>Progetti di sviluppo del territorio: le azioni integrate locali in Italia e in Europa</em>, Il Sole 24 ore</span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 48pt;text-indent: -48pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="it-IT"><span style="font-size: x-small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000">Comunicazione della Commissione al consiglio, al parlamento europeo, al comitato economico e sociale e al comitato delle regioni (2000), <em>La programmazione dei Fondi Strutturali 2000-2006: prima valutazione dell&#8217;iniziativa Urban</em>, parte seconda, http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/urban2/documents_it.htmt</span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 48pt;text-indent: -48pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="it-IT"><span style="font-size: x-small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000">Comunicazione della Commissione agli Stati Membri (2000), <em>Orientamenti relativi all’iniziativa comunitaria concernente la rivitalizzazione economica e sociale delle città e delle zone adiacenti in crisi, per promuovere uno sviluppo urbano sostenibile Urban II</em>, (2000)1100, 28/04/2000 </span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 48pt;text-indent: -48pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="en-GB"><span style="font-size: x-small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000">De Leo D. (2005), “Italy’s peripheries and Policies: an Overview”, in Ciaffi D. (a cura di), <em>Neighbourhood Housing debate</em>, FrancoAngeli, Milano</span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 48pt;text-indent: -48pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="it-IT"><span style="font-size: x-small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000">Dolci D. (1954), <em>Fare presto (e bene) perché si muore</em>, De Silva, Torino</span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 48pt;text-indent: -48pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="it-IT"><span style="font-size: x-small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000">Donolo C. (2000), <em>Disordine</em>, Donzelli editore, Roma</span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 48pt;text-indent: -48pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="it-IT"><span style="font-size: x-small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000">Fricano P. (2006), <em>Bagheria. Tra conservazione e  cambiamento</em>, Officine Grafiche Riunite, Bagheria</span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 48pt;text-indent: -48pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="it-IT"><span style="font-size: x-small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000">Fukuyama F. (1996), <em>La fiducia</em>, Rizzoli,</span></span></span></span><em><span lang="it-IT"><span style="font-size: x-small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000"> <span style="font-style: normal">Milano</span></span></span></span></span></em></p>
<p style="margin-left: 48pt;text-indent: -48pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="it-IT"><span style="font-size: x-small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000">Gambetta D. (1988), <em>Le strategie della </em></span></span></span></span><em><span lang="it-IT"><span style="font-size: x-small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000">fiducia</span></span></span></span></em><span lang="it-IT"><span style="font-size: x-small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000"><em>. Indagini sulla razionalità della cooperazione</em>, Einaudi, Torino. </span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 48pt;text-indent: -48pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="it-IT"><span style="font-size: x-small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000">Granovetter M. (1998), <em>La  forza dei legami deboli</em>, Liguori, Napoli</span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 48pt;text-indent: -48pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="it-IT"><span style="color: #000000"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="font-size: x-small">Laino G. (1999), “Il programma Urban in Italia”, Archivio di Studi Urbani e Regionali, n. 66, pp. 69-97 </span></span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 48pt;text-indent: -48pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="it-IT"><span style="font-size: x-small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000">Leone N. G. (1997), “Il piano di Bagheria città delle ville barocche”, in <em>Urbanistica</em> 108, Inu edizioni, Roma</span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 48pt;text-indent: -48pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="it-IT"><span style="font-size: x-small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000">Maraini D. (1990), <em>La lunga vita di Marianna Ucria</em>, Super BUR Rizzoli</span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 48pt;text-indent: -48pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="it-IT"><span style="font-size: x-small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000">Maraini D. (1993), <em>Bagheria</em>, Rizzoli, Milano </span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 48pt;text-indent: -48pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="it-IT"><span style="font-size: x-small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000">Mutti A. (1998), <em>Capitale sociale e sviluppo. La fiducia come risorsa</em>, il Mulino, Bologna</span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 48pt;text-indent: -48pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="it-IT"><span style="font-size: x-small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000">Padovani L. (2002), “Il concetto di azione integrata”, in Palermo P.C. (2002), <em>cit.</em> pp. 66-87.</span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 48pt;text-indent: -48pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="it-IT"><span style="font-size: x-small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000">Palermo P. C., Savoldi P. (2002) (a cura di), <em>Il programma Urban e l’innovazione delle politiche urbane. Esperienze locali: contesti, programmi, azioni</em>, FrancoAngeli/Diap.</span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 48pt;text-indent: -48pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="it-IT"><span style="font-size: x-small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000">Palermo P. C. (2002) (a cura di), <em>Il programma Urban e l’innovazione delle politiche urbane. Il senso dell’esperienza: interpretazioni e proposte</em>, FrancoAngeli/Diap</span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 48pt;text-indent: -48pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="it-IT"><span style="font-size: x-small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000">Pasqui G. (2007), “Gli eventi nelle pratiche di pianificazione: cosa sono e come usarli”, in <em>CRU-Critica della Razionalità Urbanistica, </em>Alinea Editrice, Firenze</span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 48pt;text-indent: -48pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="it-IT"><span style="font-size: x-small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000">Putnam R. (1993), <em>La Tradizione civica nelle</em> <em>regioni italiane, </em>Mondadori, Milano</span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 48pt;text-indent: -48pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="it-IT"><span style="font-size: x-small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000">Putnam R. (2004), <em>Capitale sociale e individualismo. Crisi e rinascita della cultura civica in America, </em>il Mulino, Bologna</span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 48pt;text-indent: -48pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="it-IT"><span style="font-size: x-small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000">Rullani E. (1994), “Il valore della conoscenza”, <em>Economia e Politica Industriale</em>, n. 82</span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 48pt;text-indent: -48pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="it-IT"><span style="font-size: x-small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000">Tomasi di Lampedusa G. (1999), <em>Il gattopardo</em>, Feltrinelli, Milano</span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 48pt;text-indent: -48pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="it-IT"><span style="font-size: x-small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000">Trigiglia C. (1999), “Capitale sociale e sviluppo locale”, in <em>Stato e mercato</em>, n. 57, il Mulino, Bologna</span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 48pt;text-indent: -48pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="it-IT"><span style="font-size: x-small"><span style="font-family: Tahoma"><span style="color: #000000">Tripoli C. (2005), <em>Dalla foresta al PRG del 1976. Crescita urbana di Bagheria</em>, Eugenio Maria Falcone Editore</span></span></span></span></p>
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		<title>The spatial logic of European actions</title>
		<link>http://cremaschi.dipsu.it/partnerships-strategie-e-governance-del-territorio/the-spatial-logic-of-european-actions/</link>
		<comments>http://cremaschi.dipsu.it/partnerships-strategie-e-governance-del-territorio/the-spatial-logic-of-european-actions/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Fri, 23 Oct 2009 20:35:37 +0000</pubDate>
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				<category><![CDATA[In English]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Partnerships, strategie e governance del territorio]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[politiche]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Unione Europea]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt;text-align: left">Urban and Spatial European Policies: LEVELS OF TERRITORIAL GOVERNMENT, EURA Conference in Turin, 18-20 April 2002</p>

<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="en-GB">
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="en-GB">The area based initiatives have become a common feature of urban policies in many countries of Europe; even more, the European Commission has located local actions and integrated programmes [...]]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<address>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt;text-align: left"><sup><a class="sdfootnoteanc" name="sdfootnote1anc" href="#sdfootnote1sym"></a></sup>Urban and Spatial European Policies: LEVELS OF TERRITORIAL GOVERNMENT, EURA Conference in Turin, 18-20 April 2002</p>
</address>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="en-GB">
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="en-GB">The area based initiatives have become a common feature of urban policies in many countries of Europe; even more, the European Commission has located local actions and integrated programmes at the top of the framework of spatial policies.</p>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="en-GB">The model of local action has sensible empirical reasons: it is an innovative model, which tries to overcome the weaknesses of sectoral public actions (Gaudin 1993). A few common features may possibly be detected: a) all the programmes are locally bound actions increasingly concerned with the local development and employment issues; b) they foster a “vision” of spatial development for the whole area, the idea of “territory” implying community, environment and the local heritage as well; c) intended initially as a group of detached measures, some have progressed toward compound social and economic features; d) dealing with the implementation process seems to trigger an embryo co-operation between local authorities and recently powerful regions.</p>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="en-GB">The implementation of urban actions across Europe has pinpointed a number of policy assumptions:</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">issues 	concentrated in distressed areas are all related and have to be 	tackled together in order to have a chance of renewing an area 	thoroughly (OECD 1998);</p>
</li>
<li>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">operating on 	areas of limited extent guarantees greater visibility and more 	effective management in the implementation process (CEC 1995);</p>
</li>
<li>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">different 	subjects combine in the local partnership (the inhabitants 	themselves, the local authorities, the national government, the 	private sector, voluntary bodies, and the European Union); such mix 	deeply influences case-studies in different studies, and is affected 	by national framework (Geddes 1998; Cremaschi 2002a);</p>
</li>
<li>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">the 	&#8220;integrated&#8221; approach is meant as a technique able to 	trickle a cumulative process (Turok 1991);</p>
</li>
<li>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">the 	effective management of such programmes has caused the local 	political-decisional system to progress, that is it has enabled it 	to gain a certain knowledge which spurs the system of governance to 	tackle and resolve on a permanent basis other social issues and 	problem areas (Chanan 1992);</p>
</li>
<li>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">local 	actions excavate the ”capability deposit”, and allow the “local 	knowledge” to come to the surface, and the local network to 	experiment solutions which were not available or which did not 	appear available earlier.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">Local action methodology has been recently extended to wider aims such as local development (De Rita and Bonomi 1998; Fundaçao 2001) and is now widely acknowledged as a fundamental tool of a new programming for a more sustainable development. The investments supported by the European Regional Fund in Italy are a good example (Gualini 2001): they also show that the identification of spatial concepts and the implementation of programmes influence each other, sometimes leading to a successful reconsidering of administrative boundaries and traditional spatial framework. According to the Community Support Framework for Italy, the “integrated projects” are a complex of inter-sectoral actions, nested in a coherent shared vision. Such actions require a unitary management and an adequate “critical weight” in term of financial investment (Bilancio 1999).</p>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">However, looking both at area initiatives and local development paves the way to a certain number of issues, as witnessed by the long establishment of the varied field of municipal strategies (Le Galès 1993). First of all, the sheer idea of a territorial basis of local action is questioned: on the contrary, this explains why the Urban initiatives stuck to a spatial concept such as the (rather French) idea of the “quartier”. As local development is concerned, not a single idea of a meaningful spatial concept can be ascertained, but rather a wide variety of territorial phenomenology (Cremaschi 2001).</p>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="en-GB">It is for this reason that it seems worth questioning the “spatial logic” of the European integrated actions. Reconstructing the spatial logic means to address issues such as how local actions are influenced by the spatial organisation of societies; and, in contrast, how spatial images influence urban policies. These questions are worth further investigation. The reason is that a clear spatial approach has never been made explicit (CEC 1998c), and possibly is not among the priority of the European policy making (as witnessed by the complex history of the Spatial Perspective (Cremaschi 2002b; Faludi and Zonneveld eds. 1997).</p>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">This paper is based on a survey of different Italian development programmes (Rap100- Formez, 2001), and a comparison with different European urban policies (Cremaschi 2002a). The results are described elsewhere (Cremaschi 2001 and 2002b), while a few general remarks are presented here.</p>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">A first issue in the search of a spatial logic is the number of local actions, whose growing figure is somehow alarming (§1); a second issue is the vague and uncertain idea of what an adequate spatial concept should be, the spatial matching of territory and society being a hard theoretical issue (§2); a further issue is whether the model of integration fits in different spatial frameworks (§3); and finally, the last issue impinges upon the theoretical assumptions underlying the local action and the local development models (§4).</p>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">
<p>The inflation of urban actions</p>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">About 1,600 local actions have been running in Italy in less than five years, of different dimension and scope.  Surveys show actions piling up within the same spatial units and administrative boundaries, promising a huge investment of public resources (about 78 billions €: Cremaschi M., 2000a, Censis 2001).</p>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">More precisely, two main strands seem in one way or another to have been brought together:</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p align="justify">the agreements devised by 	“Patti territoriali” in the framework of the national 	“negotiated” programming fostering local development, later 	assumed by the EU as Pacts for employment. These partnerships 	operate at the crossroads between job creation, enterprise creation 	and local development.  Development actions consist of more or less 	300 programmes, by two thirds located in the Southern regions;</p>
</li>
<li>
<p align="justify">the mix of different 	functional actions fostered by programmes for the renewal of urban 	downgraded areas, yet often expanding to wider aims.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">Subsequent “generations” of such programmes have in fact elaborated upon the same integrated approach, whose last offspring are the Sustainable Development Schemes (Prusst, Programmi di recupero urbano e sviluppo sostenibile del territorio: Lavori Pubblici 2000b) on the one hand, and the Local actions for spatial development (Pit, Programmi integrati territoriali: Cremaschi 2001), the “strategic vision” aimed to amalgamate locally the actions envisaged by the Community Support Framework, on the other.</p>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">Thus several programmes have fostered a variety of aims maintaining the same approach and moreover spreading actions over the same area. Probably because of these two reasons, the “family groups” were brought together and mingled.</p>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">Further steps may be represented by the spreading of Agendas, the environmental Agenda 21 or the Habitat agenda, inspired by international models fostered by the United Nations and by less formal international networks. The agendas seem consistent with these former integrated programmes for two main reasons: they focus on the consensus building side of the implementation of “shared” vision; and they imply a cultural effort to adequate or change the stakeholders’ orientations. Both are common issues of local actions (agendas have started to be institutionalised in some countries of Europe, for instance in Denmark).</p>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">The number of actions does matter. An inflated style of programming raises a double issue: an excess of technicalities in the targeting of areas; a lack of capacity by agencies to gradually adjust to areas and actions.</p>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">Elsewhere the new style of programming is becoming tricky due to either the number of single actions, or the small size of most of them. In France, the “politique de la ville” (Chaline 1997) alone accounts for more than 2.500 actions: it has progressively summed up 214 “contrats” with different cities and metropolitan areas plus Paris, all together addressing 1300 neighbourhoods and 750 municipalities. As a consequence, it may be impossible to make out the whole picture, and the resulting jigsaw seems in any case to lack the due “democratic accountability”(Sueur 1999).</p>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">In Germany (Toepel et al., 2000) national urban programmes stem from the municipal experimentation of local initiatives (Gualini 2000): the Soziale Stadt programme concerned 162 initiatives in 124 cities in 1999.</p>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">In the UK the number of local initiatives has not simplified the elaboration of unitary development strategies, but has made it harder (Social Exclusion Unit, 2000: 29), while the severed style of the management weighs as a “burden” on the local operators.</p>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">The inflating of local actions questions the adequateness and pertinence of area based initiatives. However, the logic of spatial effects is somehow vague while the excess of boundaries enhances a new technicality of spatial practices. The murky sediment of multi-layered programmes increases the gap between general policies and local actions.</p>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">
<p>Ad-hoc territories</p>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">Beyond number and variety, the spatial effects of single actions are highly differentiated. However the logic of spatial effects is sometimes vague.</p>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">Often the combined result of different “territorial concepts” is unclear. Integrated programmes -such as the Urban Initiative- have combined several territorial concepts: the functional zoning of areas (in order to delimit areas eligible for financial support and to determine the application of territorialized policies): the improvement of basic infrastructures, facilities and public services; the development of synergies to establish functional interdependencies among policies; the differentiation of policies, measures and technical assistance on the basis of specific territorial criteria (CEC 1998b). Even more so when local development, or wider programmes, are at stake.</p>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">The Italian agreements for local development (Rap-Formez  2001) impinge upon different territorial images.</p>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">Research has shown (tab. 1) that spatial concepts and policy styles are closely linked. However, combined outcomes occurred sometimes that are coherent with the decision process implemented:</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">some regions 	have referred to homogeneous territorial areas, such as those 	often described in the framework of regional planning; the decision 	if often hierarchical, yet is sometimes corrected by a mild 	reference to economic processes;</p>
</li>
<li>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">other 	regions refer to the local economic systems, more ambitious 	local identities which ideally coincide with an employment basin and 	a development process, defining ad hoc areas incrementally 	resulting sometimes from a negotiated selection, sometimes from a 	top-down decision;</p>
</li>
<li>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">finally, 	some regions have designed project-areas, as opposed to the 	natural ones, combining factual indicators, administrative criteria 	and local “visions” derived from a wide negotiation with local 	stakeholders and policy-makers, thus mediating between the 	“hardware” of different localities and the “software” of 	articulated processes.</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">Tab. 1</p>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">Spatial concepts and policy styles</p>
<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4" width="504">
<tbody>
<tr valign="top">
<td width="117">
<p style="text-indent: 18pt">
</td>
<td width="118">
<p style="text-indent: 18pt">Basilicata</p>
</td>
<td width="118">
<p style="text-indent: 18pt">Campania, 			Puglia</p>
</td>
<td width="118">
<p style="text-indent: 18pt">Calabria</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td width="117">
<p style="text-indent: 18pt">Territorial 			images</p>
</td>
<td width="118">
<p style="text-indent: 18pt">Homogeneous 			territorial areas</p>
</td>
<td width="118">
<p style="text-indent: 18pt">Local economic 			systems</p>
</td>
<td width="118">
<p style="text-indent: 18pt">Project-areas</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td width="117">
<p style="text-indent: 18pt">Spatial 			concepts</p>
</td>
<td width="118">
<p style="text-indent: 18pt">Natural areas 			defined through coherent sets of data</p>
</td>
<td width="118">
<p style="text-indent: 18pt">Mixed reference 			to economic and territorial features</p>
</td>
<td width="118">
<p style="text-indent: 18pt">“Voluntarist” 			areas mediating different inputs</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td width="117">
<p style="text-indent: 18pt">Policy style</p>
</td>
<td width="118">
<p style="text-indent: 18pt">Paternalistic</p>
</td>
<td width="118">
<p style="text-indent: 18pt">Corporatist</p>
</td>
<td width="118">
<p style="text-indent: 18pt">Negotiated</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td width="117">
<p style="text-indent: 18pt">Decision-process</p>
</td>
<td width="118">
<p style="text-indent: 18pt">Top-down</p>
</td>
<td width="118">
<p style="text-indent: 18pt">Mixed, top-down</p>
</td>
<td width="118">
<p style="text-indent: 18pt">Bottom-up</p>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">However, it can be easily recognised that:</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">often, 	localities involved are highly heterogeneous (both for geographical 	features and for development perspective);</p>
</li>
<li>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">not 	surprisingly, territorial images differ; among the images, those 	resulting from a “voluntarist projection”, being presumably more 	interesting then than those mirroring geographical features only;</p>
</li>
<li>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">the matching 	of localities and images is the outcome of a sense-making process 	among stakeholders, as well as of an opportunistic stance of the 	local decision-makers (Cersosimo 2000);</p>
</li>
<li>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">and finally, 	the construction of areas depends on the regional policy framework 	(Cremaschi 2001b).</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">Beyond a reasonable amount the following features tend to be problematic and to hide any coherent spatial effect: number, territorial heterogeneity, variety of styles. However, it is seems interesting to ascertain whether they affect also the model of local action too.</p>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="en-GB">
<p>Integration models</p>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="en-GB">A further question is whether integrated programmes follow a unitary model. This is to question one of the most important features of the new urban actions, and precisely the core idea of the integration of measures. One can conclude that integration is not only a tantalising concept, but also quite a multifaceted one, which addresses the rather complicating issue of matching spatial concepts and spatial policies.</p>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="en-GB">Notwithstanding the Commission support for an extensive idea of integration, “…integrated approaches are still relatively few” (CEC 1998b). The idea of integration is however a “plural” one, not easily identifiable.</p>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">It must be noted that, on one hand, programmes seldom went further than a shallow blend of functional measures, and did not overcome what may be called the functional limit of integration. So far, the Italian experience enacted a weaker version of integration. Integration has been often meant as a sheer mix or balance of different measures, sometimes with disappointing outcomes (Tosi in Lavori Pubblici 2000): building, infrastructure, some social benefits and services to employment. However, different interpretations of the integration concept can be ascertained in territorial practices (Padovani 1999; Cremaschi 2002a; Donolo 2001).</p>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">On the other hand, it should be reminded that pursuing integration is not a recent one. There is no doubt that development projects of the ‘50s for instance were mainly a one-sector, one-actor mix of actions. International agencies insisted on concentrating on a single activity providing supposedly beneficial one-sided shocks to the entire economy.</p>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">However, a more integrated approach did sometimes crop up in the framework of the national economic development programme for the South; for instance, some integrated actions tried out after World War II targeted housing, health and education, strongly influenced by a peculiar mixture of Italian historicism and US regionalism. As geographical patterns are formed by history, the matching up of society and the environment moulded the whole territory. In turn, such ideology maintained that its structural features offered a basis for a comprehensive strategy of spatial development.</p>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">A second strand may be traced back to the 70s, to the growing awareness that regional spatial frameworks were affecting the outcome of the economic measures taken for the development of the South. To replace the budgetary style of programming, a complex of incentives and local agreement procedures were devised, tools to be generalised later in the 90s. However, those first attempts did not overcome the functional limit already shown. Since then, a turn in strategy fostered a more negotiated approach and a strengthened effectiveness.</p>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">It is worth remembering the definition provided by the European Commission, in the context of a review of the territorial implications of EU policies:</p>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">
<p style="margin-right: 23.6pt;text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">“More ambitious than the simple acknowledgement of functional interactions and the development of the synergies which can result, certain Community activities try to develop integrated and multisectoral approaches with a strong territorial dimension… (These initiatives) – based on the principles of participation and partnership – are aiming at the joint identification of a common strategic vision of development through effective co-ordination and co-operation between all the actors involved … and by taking into consideration both the natural, economic, social and territorial potential of an area and its hinterlands as well as the limits of its carrying capacity&#8230; (CEC 1998b: Italics added).</p>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">In the Commission language, the integrated approach is one among “a plurality of territorial concepts” of a very different nature, and among such concept it is an intriguing one, not easily matching EU aims and options. More precisely, the integrated approach may be distinguished from policies presenting direct impacts (such as the delimitation of areas eligible for support, the improvement of basic infrastructures, the differentiation on the basis of specific territorial criteria, etc.) which implement the basic functions of the Regional Policy.</p>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">The integrated approach instead is a concept linking three rather difficult presumptions: an underlying strategic vision, an agreed action plan, and a commitment to sustainability.</p>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">There are quite obvious differences with the outcomes of previous less integrated programmes like those discussed so far: the integration model enacted by most of the initiatives reviewed is limited to “ the simple acknowledgement of functional interactions”. Even the ambitious Development Plan of the South (Bilancio 1999) is aimed to concentrate the financial resources on a limited number of measures and areas; and the regeneration programmes implemented so far have privileged the financial integration and rather the cross-linkage of private developments with social aims and public actor (Dicoter 2000).</p>
<p class="sdfootnote" style="text-indent: 18pt">However, the functional interaction is basically a technical combination, and does not imply –at least to a significant extent – a joint conceptualisation.</p>
<p class="sdfootnote" style="text-indent: 18pt">
<p>Networks or communities?</p>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">The final remark concerns the model of development fostered by the programmes.</p>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">Again, certain vagueness and redundancy have been found in most of the strategic statements, at least at an initial stage. Due to the competition requirements, an agreement between the strategic vision and the action plan is not always guaranteed. It is worth remembering that territorial policy lacks a strong background in Italy, apart from a few examples such as the land reclamation and some early Fifties programme in the framework of post-war effort to develop the Southern regions. And it is also worth remembering that the municipal level is the stronger tier of territorial government, as elsewhere in Europe, while the integrated spatial development is weak either at a regional or at a national level. However, this is a changing feature of the planning system in most European countries (Cremaschi 2002c), and even in Italy a form of structure plan is now provided by the provincial governments (Lavori Pubblici 2000)</p>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">Even more important, action plans have varied quite a lot in the implementation process, being strongly influenced by the empirical conditions of the assembling (Avarello 2001). This is a coercive condition in the most deprived situations: due to a potential unlimited requirement of infrastructure, employment initiatives, public service etc., no one action plan can possibly satisfy local needs entirely. Consequently, the implementation game continuously offers endless reasons to rework the initial statements. It is these reasons that multi-layered political processes &#8211; such those characterising southern Italy- are eager to spoil.</p>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="en-GB">And finally, the image of the territory implied by the vision of the economic development is rather weak. Other integrated programmes have cared more about the matching of the spatial representation, and of the model of action. As local development is concerned, the first is often ritual and not relevant, as experienced so far by the Community Framework. Consequently the “agreed” vision tends to be weak, and the territorial criteria less coherent. The local development programme lacks an identification of the social core of the spatial unit, as effective as the idea of neighbourhood in the urban policy. Decades ago the idea of community could have played such a role, an idea is sometimes advocated by influent thinkers of the autonomy of “local societies” (Magnaghi 2000, De Rita e Bonomi 1998).</p>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="en-GB">Actually, both the neighbourhood and the community ideas hide similar conceptual and political “traps” (Bagnasco 1999), against which territorial and urban policies are not likely to have been inoculated yet. One of the original characters of the integrated programmes is rather the peculiar link between general issues –such as social exclusion or economic development- and the local action. From this point of view the idea of a “locality” is like of that a cosmopolitan network which exploits the “hidden resources” of the locality, joining local and global knowledge (Hannerz in Perulli 2000, p. 46).</p>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="en-GB">Community however is not the only source of stimulus for local development initiatives. Recently, the idea of local society as a complex web of relations has been re-introduced even in the core of economic science. In the spirit of the integrated programmes, as described in the last paragraph, it is maintained that territorial criteria influence economic development and social equitableness. Even more so, the economic relevance of localities is acknowledged by regional policies inspired by the (mainly Krugman’s) theory of global competition (for the Italian case, see a review in: Barca and Pellegrini 2000).</p>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">It is quite clear that the integrated action for local development impinge upon a shared theoretical hypothesis (already included in manuals: Musu e Cazzavillan 1997): “localities” rest upon a hidden potential. The local project resorts to social capital in order to exploit such unmobile and often unknown resources.</p>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">On the other hand, the survey of local development practices offers far more mixed results. Local actions have sometimes led to unintelligible outcomes, an issue that questions the adequacy of local actions to match policy aims. It is an important question, yet one that cannot be met purely on theoretical grounds.</p>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">Eventually, the ideal-type of spatial concept underlying the local development initiative is characterised by three features: the spatial voluntarism, the idea of spoiling the sediment of “hidden resources”, in a strategic framework mixed up with collusive and opportunistic attitudes.</p>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">
<p>Conclusions</p>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">A few common features of most European actions have been detected in the survey of the earlier attempts of Southern Italian programmes. In practice, the survey has shown several weaknesses, those included the number and variety of local actions, a highly nuanced model of integration; a weak theoretical basis. The spreading and success of actions in front of an apparent unsymmetry between the rationale and the action-plan of the programmes is particularly striking.</p>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">However, some issues seem more general as shown by the comparison with foreign examples. The European integrated actions -when addressing the issue of local development- need an adequate conceptualisation both of the local society and of the development model. Other integrated programmes –for instance, in the field of urban policy &#8211; have cared more about matching the representation and the model of action (Turok 1991), the ideas of “quartiers” and of community acting somehow as paradigms.</p>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">In conclusion, the spatial logic of European actions seems an effect rather than a deliberation. It appears, however, blurred along the stratified boundaries of different programmes and justified on somehow fragile theoretical basis. Yet it results of increasing political importance, because of the spatial management of differences in an enlarged Europe (Cremaschi 2002b). A few broad issues question the expansion of area-based initiatives.</p>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">The first is the adequacy of a partnership and participatory model to enact a sustainable development process in less developed regions: such integrated programme for local development targets the most difficult aim, in the most difficult environment. This is a general issue that requires careful attention in the balance of policy initiatives, particularly at the European level and in the process of enlargement of the Union, a concern already expressed with regard to the urban policy area (Cremaschi 2002b).</p>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">A second major weakness is about the description of the territory. When the spatial concept of local society is ritual and not relevant, as possibly with the “local development agreements” (yet the new programming in Italy is far from reaching evaluable outcomes), the “agreed” vision tends to be weak, and the territorial criteria less coherent. It is worth to considering whether regional planning and economic analysis have been able to introduce yielding and productive territorial images.</p>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">A further issue arises from the superimposing of programmes. If new programmes join a number of others targeting the same area -or neighbouring areas- the issue arises of co-ordinating such actions. On the one hand, a spatial development framework is needed to direct local actions (an issue more and more at stake of the European planning reform: Cremaschi 2002b); on the other, an “agreed vision” is required in order to underpin the framework. As known, these double requirements are anything but easy to uphold. In particular, difficulties are apparent when and where local authorities are weak, which is likely to happen for instance in Southern regions.</p>
<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">
<p style="margin-left: 36pt;margin-right: -3.5pt;text-indent: -36pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="it-IT">
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<p class="sdfootnote" style="margin-left: 36pt;margin-right: -3.5pt;text-indent: -36pt">Turok I., 1991, a cura di, Strategies for the peripheral estates, Strathclyde papers on Planning, 18, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow.</p>
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		<title>Urban actions and the making of a European spatial policy</title>
		<link>http://cremaschi.dipsu.it/partnerships-strategie-e-governance-del-territorio/urban-actions-and-the-making-of-a-european-spatial-policy/</link>
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		<pubDate>Fri, 23 Oct 2009 20:28:51 +0000</pubDate>
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				<category><![CDATA[In English]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Partnerships, strategie e governance del territorio]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[politiche]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Unione Europea]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[“Urban Actions And The Making Of A European Spatial Policy”, Urban Affairs Association 32nd Annual Meeting, Boston, Massachusetts, March 20-23, 2002
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Europe has a geographical necessity, according to the French geographer Lévy (1997), because it has always compelled people and nations to continuously rework its social fabric, integrating differences in “larger” identities. Space is [...]]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<address>“Urban Actions And The Making Of A European Spatial Policy”, Urban Affairs Association 32nd Annual Meeting, Boston, Massachusetts, March 20-23, 2002</address>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Europe has a geographical necessity, according to the French geographer Lévy (1997), because it has always compelled people and nations to continuously rework its social fabric, integrating differences in “larger” identities. Space is often played as a political ruse, a source of identity and a way to manage symbolic differences (<sup><a class="sdfootnoteanc" name="sdfootnote2anc" href="#sdfootnote2sym"><sup>1</sup></a></sup>). Cities are central in the organization of space, but the urban policy and the spatial development framework is conceptualized in a variety of ways (van der Berg 1998, Cec 1998a).</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">The European Union has always acknowledged a central role to its urban structure, being one of the most urbanized regions of the world (80% of the total population, against 76% in the USA, as accounted by the EU: CEC 1991). In addition, recent data show a convergent trend both in the level of urbanization and in the rate of increase (UNCHS 2001).</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">A strong impetus towards innovating urban and regional policies has been witnessed in Europe during the last two decades, both at local and national level. This occurred in a distinctive political cycle, when Union members were looking for a transnational equilibrium among states while devolving powers to the regions.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">More precisely, three main strands of actions seem to converge in a perspective framework not still defined entirely: the programmes for urban downgraded areas, the local development initiatives, and the spatial development strategy.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Thus, the paper emphasizes the apparent “family resemblance” of such a variety of programmes focusing on a few common features. The main hints for a move towards a convergent profile are the emphasis on partnerships, integration and strategic vision, which have consequently becoming part of an ambitious conceptual framework (CEC 1998d).</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">However, like in many other policy fields subject to the process of convergence, such policies have consolidated a common understanding of the issues at stakes. The common language draws primarily on a few ideas: community and partnerships, the focus on a broad concept of locality and territory, and the integration of measures.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">On these fields, policies of the EU Commission aimed to produce sound results have been established during the last two decades, accompanying and sometimes re-interpreting national frameworks and local experiences (CEC 1998c). The more important is the European wide “Urban” initiative, a model initiative fostered by the CEC Commission for the urban regeneration in distressed neighbourhood (<sup><a class="sdfootnoteanc" name="sdfootnote3anc" href="#sdfootnote3sym"><sup>2</sup></a></sup>).</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">In conclusion, integrated local policies resulted in a vast field of experimentation bringing together previously separate sectors of public actions. Such integration goes well beyond the establishment of functional interdependencies among sector policies. Subsequent generations of programmes and actions in these fields have elaborated upon such assumptions fostering an incremental homogenisation of spatial practices in Europe and the parallel evolution of area-based initiatives for local development and for combating social exclusion.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">This conclusion paves the way to a reflection on the governance style and strategies in such areas, evidence suggesting that area based initiatives have produced mixed results so far, and however that they are more effective when framed in a local (yet not too much) strategy. The final hypothesis suggests that different experimental policies are combined in a strategy of establishing direct links between the Commission and localities, such an incremental process being justified more by political reasons than by the material outcomes.</p>
<p>Area based programmes</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">The European Union is getting involved with urban issues since the 90s, when a strong impetus towards deepening the Union involvement with urban life has been witnessed, even beyond what formally held by the Union treaties.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Such change has brought together severed policy concerns in distant fields such as infrastructure, economic development, environment sustainability and social welfare. The process culminated in 1997-98 with two encouraging policy statements and an important conference in Vienna (CEC 1997, 1998d).</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">In 1998 in its Framework for action (CEC 1998d), the Commission has taken a step towards increasing the effectiveness of EU policies provided for by the Treaty by making them more &#8220;urban sensitive&#8221; and ensuring that they facilitate integrated urban development. The Framework aims at a better co-ordinated Community urban action and stresses –beyond &#8220;formal” policy aims as development, cohesion and sustainability (Atkinson 2001)- the contribution to good urban governance and local empowerment.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">It is somewhat intriguing the coincidence of two decades of construction of common policies and of an enduring urban crisis, even beyond formal competence guaranteed in the Treaties or any evident success. Actually, confusion and ambiguity in the sheer idea of a European urban policy seem somewhat consistent with its popularity, as an actual “geographical necessity” accompanying the transnational construction of a common concern.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Two main consequences are: a) the direct contact of city governments and the European Commission, which steadily brought a growing number of people across Europe to be involved in continent wide programmes; b) the support to actions fostering the mitigation of economic change enhanced by the 1993 liberalisation of the common market.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">The economic turn of the Eighties concentrated a large share of underpriviledged people in urban run-down areas. People living in such areas suffer from the overlapping outcomes of the processes of urban decline and of the social exclusion (CEC 1998d): high unemployment, low income, illiteracy, low skill levels, crime, poor housing conditions, a run-down urban fabric, and a lack of social amenities. Although very difficult to estimate in size, international comparisons agree that a substantial rate of western population live in distressed areas in every country, accounting for an average 10% of the population (OECD 1998).</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">However, such features combine in different ways among the countries of Europe, reflecting the different mixture of the social “reworking” of geography, the outcomes being deeply influenced by the different involvement of the welfare state in the production of space. The distressed areas of Northern Europe are frequently large social housing estates, almost abandoned inner cities areas, and the early industrial and mining areas. In Southern Europe depopulated historic centres are more frequent. It is clear that different problems and opportunities have been addressed.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">The sheer idea of distressed areas appears thus as a ‘thick description’ and reflects a combination of cultural and technical beliefs, and of heavily differentiated policy styles in different countries (Stewart 2001). Actually, the EU orientation towards an area-based policy reflects two distinctive policy attitudes: a mainly French concern with spatial units such as ‘quartiers’ or neighbourhoods, and an English elaboration on formalised partnership.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Not only is the geography of urban distress diverse, but also the perception of the gravity of the various problems differs. Usually, different stakes are presented as the result of a temporal sequence (OECD 1998: Wolman and Goldsmith 1992) and of an ‘explicit’ account of the policy treatment of the urban issue (Parkinson 1992).</p>
<p class="sdfootnote">This approach has been stressed by the policies set up by a number of member states in order to tackle the issue of distressed areas (CEC 1998, DETR 2000, Div 2000).</p>
<p class="sdfootnote">In France the “politique de la ville” (Chaline 1997; Gaudin 1993); in the UK city actions such those under the Single Regeneration Budget programme (Hambleton and Thomas eds. 1995) or evoked by the “Urban renaissance” report; in Italy national programmes such as “Contratti di quartiere” or “Programmi di riqualificazione urbana” (Lavori Pubblici 2000b).</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">However, such policies are consistently different in weight. The UK SRB spent 2.5 billions € in the three years 1999-2001 involving 750 areas.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">France has been devoting a consistent share of the state budget to its complex of urban initiatives, increased in the last decade by double (approximately 5.3 billions €). The budget for the German Soziale Stadt programme is completely different (about 150 million €), more or less the same amount than in Italy.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">This &#8220;spatially focused approach&#8221; maximises the impact of the interventions and reinforces the mutual benefits of the projects: the overall effects of each programme thus become more visible.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">However, distressed areas do not coincide with poverty as such (CEPR 1999). An “interlocking mix” of different circumstances, sometimes “exacerbated by public policies” (OECD 1998), alters the pattern of development, and was soon addressed by a Community initative. The initiatives promoted by the Commission result from such experiences of the member states. Being unitary programmes at the European scale, the initiatives promoted by the European Commission have made it possible to compare expectations and outcomes from various cities in various countries.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">
<p>The Urban Initiative</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Among other initiatives (a presentation of the regional policy of the EU in Williams 1996), the Urban initiative may be regarded as a window to the main innovations of urban policies after years of experience. The programme was preceded by two different initiatives in the field of contrasting poverty and fostering social innovation: a) the Poverty programme was created in the wider content of the market unification of the EU countries, trying to conceptualise the intriguing features of the “new” poverty phenomena in post-industrialised Europe (Atkinson  2000), with the aim of fighting against social exclusion; b) Urban Pilot Projects (UPPs: a second series was adopted in 1996) since 1989 have been directed towards some wider priorities: the economic development of socially run-down areas, environmental measures with economic objectives, the restoration of historic centres and the exploitation of urban technological advantages…</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Eventually, in 1994 the European Commission launched the Urban programme with a strong emphasis on the economic regeneration and social rehabilitation of cities and districts in crisis. The Urban programme&#8217;s ambition was twofold: on the one hand, to promote exemplary measures, whose effectiveness would stimulate the start-up of an endogenous growth process; on the other hand, to select difficult yet manageable situations that were beyond the scope of ordinary public action. As a consequence, actions had to be limited in size if not in scope: on average, each programme targeted less than 30,000 people.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">The first Urban programme selected 118 mostly medium size cities in Europe (the minimum size was fixed at 100,000 inhabitants) targeting approximately 3.2 millions people. In 1994 about 0.9 billion € (0.78 billion $) were earmarked for the first round. The remaining funds were made available, by the State and local agencies (also by private parties, but to an extremely limited extent). On the whole, in Italy for instance, Urban programmes invested 330 million € in four years, that is including the State and local contributions as well as those of the Community, (approximately 20 thousand €, 17,4 thousands $, per city area). To provide a comparison, in 1994 the Clinton administration gave 3,5 billion $ for urban revitalisation in the Empowerment Zone Program, with 6 cities receiving 150 million $ in block plus 150 in tax abatement (Keating et al. 1996).</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">However the unitary programme is strongly differentiated in each country. In Italy, 50 % of financial resources are devoted to infrastructure, reflecting national policy orientations as far as urban policy is concerned, and only 18% to social services: in most cases, marginal attention has been paid to education, employment and social welfare (Cremaschi 2000a). In other Southern Europe countries similar attention has been paid to the physical improvement (Fundação 2001: Muñoz Sebastián 2000). More interestingly, even in the British regeneration programme Challenge community services count only for the 26% (apart from social housing: Cremaschi 2002).</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">In contrast, French Urban programmes have devoted 65% of their resources to employment initiatives, long-term learning, and local development (Quaternaire 2000, 15). In Urban, as well as in other more solid policies, two main strands seem to have been brought together: the partnership for local development, and the mixing of different functional actions fostered by programmes for the renewal of urban downgraded areas, yet often expanding to wider aims.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Action programmes were drawn up reflecting the specific problems of the neighbourhood: particular emphasis was on local participation at the project level, and the involvement of citizens in the design and implementation of specific projects, in order to create confidence in the scheme and build consensus.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Empirical research on the effectiveness of such policies has shown mixed results so far.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Even those not dealing with regeneration and urban social matters understand the importance of Urban programmes among the Community initiatives: the last one on the scene, it is the programme that (with Leader devoted to marginal rural areas development) has been first in achieving assessable results. It should cause no surprise, therefore, if attention should shift round to management difficulties, whether it is a case of distributing incentives, discriminating areas or actors, or selecting those to carry out the implementation.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">At the start of 2000 the European Commission transmitted to Member States a communication relating to the second round of the Urban Programme, whose endorsement was firmly solicited by a transversal majority in the European Parliament, due to the importance and the visibility of the experiment carried out. This may be looked upon as an indicator of the political success of a programme which was due to be combined together with other initiatives in the initial phase of the reform of the Structural Funds. However, the second Urban initiative was halved in size. Two new features were added: smaller cities have been admitted to the competition, and innovative measures were sought after.</p>
<p class="sdfootnote">A common feature of urban policies was the targeting of a well-defined area in order to contrast urban deprivation. Such programmes present in fact a twin and unique feature: they assume a) a precise representation of the issues to be addressed, and b) a corresponding model of action.</p>
<p class="sdfootnote">The representation tells us a story of the fracture in social cohesion that occurred at the end of the 70s, due to the superimposing of the unemployment and immigration issues, social exclusion and spatial unevenness being the more apparent results (Turok 1991; CEC 1997).</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">The model of action combines structural and contingent features in a multidimensional framework intended to offset situations stemming from a variety of causal factors. It is a participatory model since it was conceived, designed and implemented in participation with the stakeholders. Partnership is chosen not only for reasons of effectiveness, but also to mobilise local resources, to involve users, and to identify collectively the causes of social exclusion.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">The local approach to structural issues, the representation and the corresponding model of action, have been often questioned (Donzelot and Estèbe 1994, Beauregard 2000; Tosi in Lavori Pubblici 2000a). The point is rather whether local actions are adequate to confront with structural issues. Even if nobody claims a complete success from the area based initiatives (Stewart 2001), serious doubts have been advanced concerning the effective addressing of the process of “social disintegration” (Donzelot 1999), Urban policies may be defective having been misled by an optimistic diagnosis. Long-term social exclusion appears in this perspective bound to grow into a sub-cultural identity, one that local actions can not aim to redeem.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">In conclusion, the effectiveness of local actions is yet to be confirmed, however a long term perspective seem at least pre-requisite, as partially disputed by the evaluations of the Urban Programme in different countries (Cedru 1998; Ekos 2000; Quaternaire 2000a; Toepel et al. 2000).</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">The Urban Initiative has pursued the integration of the measures at local scale, with some success, numerous uncertainties of method, and some strategic problems. At the same time, the Regions have been striving to promote integrated territorial programmes, here again partly in keeping with the recommendations from European Structural Funds. Thus, one of the differences in the implementation of the second round of Urban -compared with the first programme- is that the Regions have sought and found a role, albeit a modest one. Will area based urban policies continue to be stand on their own, or will the Regions fill the gap with a full regional development strategy?</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">A confrontation has already started between Urban, the instruments of the “new programming” (Gualini 2001), and the territorial reference frameworks.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">
<p>Local development</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Urban programmes are not the only experimentation of a continental wide policy. Actually, the beginning of the urban programmes largely stem from the involvement of local communities with local development initiatives.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">As widely recognised, the local economic intervention is far from a clear concept (Pickvance 1990). Its origins lie in the 19<sup>th</sup> century social reformers, municipal enterprise as well as the spreading of Keynesianism late in the Thirties. Attention to the local economic policy has constituted a growing concern for local state since the 60s.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">The present spread of local programmes has bridged the economic development framework and area methodology. Many researchers have acknowledged the common roots of a variety of actions implemented in Europe during the last twenty years (Le Galès 1993; Cameron and Doling, 1995; Hambleton and Thomas 1995; Cremaschi 2002).</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">The interplay between urban policy and local development initiatives is particularly clear in a country like Italy, where urban issues are strongly influenced by regional conditions, and in general by the historical dualism of the Italian development process (De Rita and Bonomi 1998).</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">In contrast, local development policies have been rapidly growing even in more centralised state such as France (Pecqueur 1989; for a comprehensive view, CEC 1995 e 1997). The involvement of European Funds, previously almost entirely focused on agriculture, has been expanding since the mid-Seventies. In the same period consistent experimentations took place, exchanging cross-fertilisation of experiences over the oceans (Enterprises zones, development corporations&#8230;), being affected more by the political “culture” and innovativeness of the local young leaderships (Pickvance 1990) rather than by government orientations.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">The implementation of EU initiatives is not the only novelty stemming from the reform of the Structural Funds at the end of the ‘80s. Although these represent the specific financial instruments of European structural policy, they can benefit of only a minority share of the resources available for each programming period. In the EU 1994-1999 programming cycle, action was carried out on the basis of priorities regarding both productive investments and infrastructural ones. Within the context of national measures for the new EU 2000-2006 programming cycle, that logic has been completely overturned.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">The public intervention outlined mainly regards infrastructure, and is therefore linked more to the constitution of an adequate development context than to direct action substituting private enterprise, which occurred within the framework of non-routine intervention. Public investments play an essential role for the area&#8217;s development, no longer as a factor of demand, but as one of supply, able to bring about those discontinuities or threshold effects that make a “development leap forward” possible. The predominant vision is therefore one of a development process comprised of elements of imbalance and integration. Here, a concentration of efforts must be combined with a search for synergies both from the sectoral and financial point of view as well as from the economic programming action of the various government levels.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Recently, a review (CEC 2000, p. 13) stressed the interplay between different integrate territorial actions, and the convergence in methods of urban actions and local development initiatives.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">The report enhances the common background: both policies are intentionally area-based, and both share a general concern for the growing gap between better-off and less developed regions. Social inclusion and local development are strictly linked in these areas, which are consistent in Southern Europe.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Convergence in method focuses upon the establishment of social network able to catalyse the “social capital”, a local partnerships for development. Such partnerships have been widely experienced with the “territorial pacts” (Cersosimo 2002) introduced in the context of the Italian “new economic programming” approach, and later promoted as a European experience.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">The focus is the rediscovery of territorial elements as hubs of development action. The development model chosen for the southern area could be described as one of “compatible endogenous development.” Here compatibility is understood, on the one hand, within the macroeconomic framework of national convergence, attempting to meet the requisites of the Maastricht Treaty. On the other, it is understood in terms of attention to sustainability of the growth process, especially its environmental aspects.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">The growth of virtuous development mechanisms in southern Italy is closely linked to the development of the area&#8217;s permanent resources (natural, cultural and human) and of its production potentials, which are beginning to emerge within local systems and in a number of urban areas. Only with the full development of these potentials can external mobile resources (savings, enterprise, and specialised labour) have access to the area with reasonable prospects of lasting success. The margin of the public operator’s intervention is precisely linked to this development work.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">The spontaneous economic trends, in and of southern society itself, are not yet able to carry out the transformations necessary to trigger the growth process and therefore to direct the South of Italy along the positive path of growth towards which it seems to be heading.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">
<p>A family portrait</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Local actions in urban regeneration and local development show a few common features: a) all the programmes are locally bounded actions; b) they foster a “vision” of spatial development for the whole area, the idea of “territorio” implying community, environment and the local heritage as well; c) intended initially as a group of detached measures, some have progressed toward compound social and economic features; d) started as physical improvement actions, they have become increasingly concerned with the local development and employment issues; e) dealing with the implementation process seems to trigger an embryo co-operation between local authorities and recently powerful regions.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Such programmes have envisaged a variety of innovating actions so far, yet they are not necessarily new. Indeed, the aim of integrating spatial development policies dates back to post war times, standing out as a landmark in the public policy landscape of the mid-century. Such an evolutionary change has brought together severed traditions in distant fields such as infrastructure, economic development, environment and social welfare. The real questions are thus: how close have they come, what is the “recipe” of such integration, and what is the quality?</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">It must be admitted that programmes seldom went further than a shallow blend of functional measures, and did not overcome what may be called the functional limit of integration. In Italy, development projects of the ‘50s were mainly a one-sector, one-actor mix of actions. Mainstream economics and international agencies, however, insisted on concentrating on a single activity providing supposedly beneficial one-sided shocks to the entire economy.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">However, a more integrated approach did sometimes crop up in the framework of the national economic development programme for the South; for instance, some integrated actions tried out after World War II targeted on housing, health and education, strongly influenced by a peculiar mixture of Italian historicism and US regionalism. As geographical patterns are formed by history, the matching up between society and environment moulded the whole territory. In turn, such ideology maintained that its structural features offered a basis for a comprehensive strategy of spatial development.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">A second strand may be traced back to the 70s, to the growing awareness that regional spatial frameworks were affecting the outcome of the economic measures taken for the development of the South. To replace the budgetary style of programming, a complex set of incentives and local agreement procedures were devised, tools to be generalised later in the 90s. However, those first attempts did not overcome the functional limit already shown. Since then, a turn in strategy fostered a more negotiated approach and a strengthened effectiveness.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">The chance to be effective is actually spread over the great variety of initiatives encompassed by any single programme: an exceedingly high variety -as it has sometimes been remarked- justified however by a peculiar process of “generating projects”. However, a plurality of projects does not necessarily vie against the single vision behind the programme. On the contrary, dualism is a common feature of such programmes: a rigid envisioning level selects priorities and partnership; a flexible design level allows projects to be nurtured and the shortcomings occurring in the implementation process to be countered.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Such federalist and resilient programmes may well be differentiated by contents and purposes even if quite similar in their financial resources and procedures. Actually, similar schemes are operating for urban renewal, improvement of the infrastructure network, preservation of the environment, local and sustainable development, etc.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">The acknowledged mix has a double function: coping with local features as well as dealing with operational weaknesses. Beyond the variety of functions, however, also the spatial effects of the programmes are highly differentiated. As in other public policies, spatial effects depend on a variety of “territorial concepts”, which organise the correspondence of methods and aims.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Integrated programmes such as the Urban Initiative combine several territorial concepts: the zoning of areas by functions, in order to delimit areas eligible for financial support and to determine the application of territorialized policies: the improvement of basic infrastructures, facilities and public services; the development of synergies to establish functional interdependencies among policies; the differentiation of policies, measures and technical assistance on the basis of specific territorial criteria.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">A practice of flexible integration, and not a completely different model, is instead emerging from the number and variety of cases (Cremaschi 2001). Initially intended as a group of detached measures, some have progressed toward experimenting a mixed framework of social and economic features. Programmes deal with the unintended consequences of the expected traps in the implementation process. Parternships seem to trigger an embryo co-operation between local authorities, a differentiation of governance styles, and the dialogue among different institutional levels (such as recently empowered regions).</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">
<p>The concern  for the “spatial development”</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">The coming closer of EU member state economies affected the policies addressing local issues; in turn, this has changed the vision of spatial development of member states. The governance of change is more and more the result of co-operative efforts which go beyond institutional boundaries either at the local or at the global level. Tentative experiments of co-operation of a mixed frame of governance have been experienced during the last two decades. Two examples can be provided: a) the establishment of a common spatial development perspective for the whole continent, and b) the establishment of Commission initiative, such as Urban and Interreg, the latter being aimed to develop cooperation among the transborder territories of the Union.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">The period around the ‘90s is in fact characterised by events, decisions and initiatives that profoundly modified the relation between Community policies and the European space. And a new dimension of governance has been progressively set up in front of the trans-national co-operation for local and spatial development.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">The idea of constructing a vision of the European territory was not born recently nor within the European Community. The long preparation may somehow contrast with the slim conclusions (CEC 1998b). However, it suggests that a long span of time was required in order to allocate contrasting and sensitive policy options, and that the content of the European spatial policy has somehow changed over time.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">It matured in the Council of Europe&#8217;s work over about 25 years. In 1964, the Council of Europe Assembly decided upon the foundation of the European Conference of Ministers Responsible for Territorial Development (Cemat) with the precise duty of examining a planning policy for European space. The “Draft European Scheme of Territorial Planning,” submitted in Strasbourg at Cemat ’88, supplied numerous materials and guidelines for the subsequent strategic documents of the European Commission.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">The first Conference of Community Ministers for Territorial Planning and Regional Development met in Nantes in November 1989. The Conference was a success. The Member Countries declared their interest and readiness to make a common commitment to anticipating spatial transformations and to agreeing on joint policies among themselves and with the Commission.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">On the one hand, the Turin Conference in 1990 reintroduced general themes (urban networks, transport and communications, border zones), and on the other proposed an in-depth study of the Mediterranean question as an issue for European planning and extra-Community relations. Turin was an important step in the course of the two proposals. The meeting achieved both the extension of the Interreg program to the regions of extra-Community borders (including the coasts) and the establishment of the observatory on the territorial effects of policies of EU interest.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Also at The Hague Conference in 1991, general issues were influenced by local emphasis. The European network system previously discussed seemed to exclude, or in any case, to ignore the “peripheries” of Europe, to draw attention to the efficiency and sustainability of the development of the central territories &#8211; the areas that today count for the future of the Community.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">From 1992 on, the Conferences have been more “oriented” by the preparatory work of the Committee which followed the results of the seven trans-regional studies and of the three trans-national studies launched by Europe 2000 towards the new document Europe 2000+. The preparation of the Agenda was strongly affected by French seminal preparatory studies, which outlined some policy options following the French tradition of strong centralised planning. It was the Committee itself that matured the decision made at the Liège Conference in 1993 to construct the Esdp, whose first official version was presented at Noordwick in June 1997.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">However, the Committee thought the Perspective had to provide a “guide” for integrated territorial planning strategies of the Member States. At the same time, it was to have been an instrument for the coordination of actions &#8211; already adopted or to be adopted &#8211; exercising a spatial impact within the framework of the Union&#8217;s different sectoral policies. Such ambitious aims were clearly conflictual with member states’ options. In particular, a clear and strong Eu’s Perspective would have had to inform the programming of the Structural Funds and the homogenisation of national planning frameworks, clearly an unlikely results given the level of regional differentiation.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Among the widely differentiated models of territorial planning in Europe, scrutinised by the CEC (CEC 1998b), the perspective assumed eventually a cautious position: to ensure spatial coordination, but from the members states up to the Commission (Faludi et al. 1997), a sort of an “incremental federalism”.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Actually, the perspective document impact is a modest one. Somebody even underlines indirect effects rather than direct outcomes, questioning whether the whole spatial planning has “much ado about nothing” (Kunzmann 1998). A few spatial concepts (the polycentric urban network and the urban-rural transition) are routinely addressed by recent policy statements (the Cohesion Report 2001), but links with sound policy orientations, and expected outcomes are somehow vague.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">However, the Esdp establishes a background for the Commission that may bring to more credible policy orientations. This happens through an articulated effort: selecting transnational options, such as a few infrastructure corridors; establishing languages, reference practices, a common awareness and common concerns; indicating a shared time-table and schedule.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Whether the Esdp and the local initiative experiences meet, it is not an easy forecast.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">On one hand, urban local policies have consistently innovated the tradition of spatial and economic planning. As planning aims have become more flexible, a number of questions have arisen concerning the integration of policies at all level. Planning and governance are thus not severed, but more and more the two sides of the same coin, one that has started to present a growing resemblance (Newman and Thornley, 1996).</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">On the other, the rhetoric of governance in the Esdp covers the vagueness of the construction of new spatial policies. It is somehow odd that the urban governance should be an aim, rather than an analytical tool. However, the “politics” of urban governance exemplifies a favourable attitude towards city development and the support to the increase of investment in urban areas.</p>
<p style="margin-left: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">
<p>Conclusions: making room for a European spatial policy</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Integrated local policies have sprung up in a vast field of experimentation. Spatial development, local strategies, area based initiatives are bringing together previously separate sectors of public actions. The enactment of such a difficult practice of integration goes well beyond the establishment of functional interdependencies among sector policies (as already anticipated by early development policies in the 50s).</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">In this way, the CEC Commission is experimenting with a new model of action, which is crucial for local societies. Such actions are supported by the Commission in order to strengthen subsidiarity and enact direct ties with local governments.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">The rationale of the Commission’s effort has to be found in the process of establishing a new style of governance, rather than from the direct outcomes of such actions. Such new style has been progressively focused during the Nineties.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">In this period, the governance of European cities has been re-defined at the crossroad of two main processes: the devolution of power to localities and partnerships; the decentralisation of functions and activities in the process of globalisation. New styles of local governance are defined in opposition with the central government, and routinely idealised as a tier of power closer to citizens and local issues. Even if this is partly true, it is not an adequate reason to justify the spreading of such actions, even beyond tangible outcomes.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Thus, the making of a European spatial policy appears instrumental to wider aims, such an incremental process being justified more by political reasons than by the material outcomes. Three main reasons may address further reflections on this subject.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">On one side, different experimental policies are combined in a strategy of establishing direct links between the Commission and localities. As anticipated by Lévy, the geography (and politics) of local actions is trying to overcome historical backgrounds, mirrored in Europe by different administrative systems. Some countries are more centralised, while others depend upon a federal or a regional system. The general tendency is towards an increased decentralisation of policies it is often acknowledged even beyond legal bindings by the Union treaties. This effort has been increased in the last quarter of the 20th century in almost all the member states of the European Union. As suggested by Padoa-Schioppa  (2001), the globalisation process is more advanced in Europe because of the “economic federalism” of the four-tier system of government (community, nations, regions and municipalities). It is worth noting that Italy is privileged having being a ‘multi-governance system’ long before the Union. A convergence process is recognisable even in the field of planning and in the ‘style’ of managing the regeneration of cities and regions (Newmann and Thornley 1996, Faludi and Zonneveld 1997).</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">On the other side, local agents are well positioned in order to deal with the globalisation effects, and cities appear central actors in the managing of such changes. Even more so when devolution sometimes combines effectively with the &#8220;deconcentration&#8221; process of functions and activities, which has occurred in the pattern of urbanisation.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Finally, the European policy making is structurally limited by the agreement of member states. The chance of a “positive integration” of markets (Tinbergen’s system of regulation) is strongly affected by the lack of a majority rule. The institutional framework of the Union, however, allows for a dynamic confrontation among states and for bilateral negotiations with the Union. Such a complex web of negotiation seems to lead to a better result when “negative integration” issues are at stake (Scharpf 1997), the latter consisting of the removal of barriers in the Tinbergen scheme. The Commission may reach better results than any single member state being able to compensate gains and losses on other negotiation tables. Spatial policies have been successful until they have addressed negative or experimental integration issues, such as urban solidarity, pilot projects, local developments; and have failed, or have been less effective, when addressing more substantial options such as comprehensive strategy for coordinating transnational infrastructure.</p>
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<p style="margin-left: 36pt;text-indent: -36pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">
<div id="sdfootnote1">
<p class="sdfootnote"><a class="sdfootnotesym" name="sdfootnote1sym" href="#sdfootnote1anc">*</a> Dipsa (Planning and Architecture Department), Third 	University of Rome, via della Madonna dei Monti 40, 00184 Roma, ph.  	+39-06488871248, fx. +39-06488871249,  <a href="mailto:m.cremaschi@uniroma3.it">m.cremaschi@uniroma3.it</a>.</p>
</div>
<div id="sdfootnote2">
<p class="sdfootnote"><a class="sdfootnotesym" name="sdfootnote2sym" href="#sdfootnote2anc">1</a> As often reminded, the conclusion of the 16<sup>th</sup> century 	religious wars was the geographic option: “cuius regio, eius 	religio”.</p>
</div>
<div id="sdfootnote3">
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt"><a class="sdfootnotesym" name="sdfootnote3sym" href="#sdfootnote3anc">2</a> The paper is partly based on several case studies of 	urban policies from different European Countries (as different as 	Italy, Portugal, Germany, United Kingdom and France). Information 	has been gathered through interviews with policy makers and through 	an extensive examination of public documents (current literature and 	country evaluation reports) in a research carried out with the 	support of the Italian Department of the Spatial Development: 	Cremaschi 2001 and 2002.</p>
<p class="sdfootnote">
</div>
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		<title>Politiques urbaines et partenariat &#8220;au pluriel&#8221;: quelques remarques sur rome</title>
		<link>http://cremaschi.dipsu.it/partnerships-strategie-e-governance-del-territorio/politiques-urbaines-et-partenariat-au-pluriel-quelques-remarques-sur-rome/</link>
		<comments>http://cremaschi.dipsu.it/partnerships-strategie-e-governance-del-territorio/politiques-urbaines-et-partenariat-au-pluriel-quelques-remarques-sur-rome/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Fri, 23 Oct 2009 15:10:36 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>editore</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[En français]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Partnerships, strategie e governance del territorio]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Pubblico privato]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Roma]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[<p>Recherches sur le projet et les concepteurs, Ministère du Logement-Pca, Paris (Actes du séminaire Euro-conception, Paris, 28-29 sept. 1993</p>
<p>C&#8217;est une géographe française qui (Seronde Babonaux 1980) a révélé qu&#8217;à Rome la construction massive des quartiers du dix-neuvième siècle d&#8217;abord, puis de la périphérie moderne, ne s&#8217;est pas produite à la suite d&#8217;un développement endogène, mais [...]]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><em>Recherches sur le projet et les concepteurs</em>, Ministère du Logement-Pca, Paris (Actes du séminaire Euro-conception, Paris, 28-29 sept. 1993</p>
<p><span lang="fr-FR">C&#8217;est une géographe française qui (Seronde Babonaux 1980) a révélé qu&#8217;à Rome la construction massive des quartiers du dix-neuvième siècle d&#8217;abord, puis de la périphérie moderne, ne s&#8217;est pas produite à la suite d&#8217;un développement endogène, mais grâce à l&#8217;aide d&#8217;un corps étranger, c&#8217;est-à-dire le jeune État italien qui en 1870 s&#8217;empara de la capitale pontificale. Seronde Babonaux utilise la contraposition physique de l&#8217;&#8221;urbe&#8221; papale à la ville &#8220;piémontaise&#8221;, devenue italienne en suite, qui l&#8217;entoure, comme guide pour la description géographique et l&#8217;explication de ce qui la différencie des autres villes européennes (et italiennes). En réalité, l&#8217;&#8221;urbe&#8221; ancienne est plus imbriquée dans la ville moderne que ce que l&#8217;on croit, mais l&#8217;effet miroir du conflit au niveau social entre les &#8220;deux villes&#8221; est doublé du conflit institutionnel entre la ville et la capitale. </span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR">Pour comprendre l&#8217;évolution des politiques urbaines, il est donc nécessaire de tenir compte du conflit entre l&#8217;État et la municipalité. A un niveau tout à fait différent, la ville aussi, en principe soumise au faible contrôle de la Région, est responsable de presque toutes les grandes décisions concernant le plan d&#8217;urbanisme, du génie urbain, du logement, des services, du réseau de transport en commun, etc. </span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR">Mais une transition étant en cours entre un modèle réglementaire de politique urbaine et l&#8217;imbrication de regimes divers, une conséquence est donc l’inutilité d’une conception unitaire des politiques urbaines. D&#8217;ailleurs, un aspect commun à toutes les définitions de politique urbaine est le mélange des effets inattendus avec les cours des actions intentionnelles (</span><sup><span style="font-size: xx-small"><span lang="fr-FR"><a class="sdfootnoteanc" name="sdfootnote1anc" href="#sdfootnote1sym"><sup>1</sup></a></span></span></sup><span lang="fr-FR">). </span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR">Quoi qu’on puisse considérer la ville de Rome comme un cas emblematique du désordre qui resulte d&#8217;une mauvaise gestion urbaine, du point de vue analytique elle apparaît comme une <em>figure de la transition</em> qu&#8217;affecte toutes les métropoles du monde. </span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR">Ce papier introduit donc les politiques urbaines dans le cas de Rome faisant récours à l&#8217;imbrication des principes de flexibilité et de blocage dans un procès de progressive articulation du système decisionnelle. </span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR">Rome a fait de la <em>flexibilité </em>un programme (voir § 1) avant de faire du plan la règle (en toute anarchie et paradoxe, on peut soutenir qu&#8217;on a privatisé bien avant que Londres la fonction du plan).</span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR">Dans un &#8220;désordre&#8221; des politiques apparentement caotique, sutout pendant les années Quatre-Vingts, on a pu décrire d&#8217;abord (voir § 2) une logique fonctionelle: le <em>blocage, </em>qu&#8217;on a cherché à expliquer comme un système de filtre des opérations urbaines.</span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR">En suite, le développement urbain semble se partager sur des horizons divers sinon alternatifs parmi differents <em>niveaux d&#8217;actions </em>(voir § 3). </span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR">Les acteurs publics et privés sont articulé à seconde de la strategie qu&#8217;ils poursuivent et de la configuration des reseaux d&#8217;acteurs pour chaque niveau (voir § 4). </span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR">Dans ce contexte on peut presenter le début d&#8217;une pratique négotionale  (voir § 5).</span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt;font-style: normal" lang="fr-FR">
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="fr-FR"><em>1. La flexibilité</em></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR">En Italie, l&#8217;urbanisme est surtout une affaire locale, au même das les limites des lois d&#8217;orientation nationale et régionale. On se trompe peu en affirmant que le niveau &#8220;supracomunal&#8221; conditionne faiblement les choix du niveau comunal. En principe, l&#8217;aménagement municipal est hiérarchique et à tout azimut. En réalité, la pratique de l&#8217;aménagement &#8211; en raison, entre autres, du lourd mécanisme d&#8217;approbation (</span><sup><span style="font-size: xx-small"><span lang="fr-FR"><a class="sdfootnoteanc" name="sdfootnote2anc" href="#sdfootnote2sym"><sup>2</sup></a></span></span></sup><span lang="fr-FR">)- s&#8217;est éloignée par degrés de sa matrice d&#8217;origine. </span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="fr-FR">D&#8217;une autre part, l&#8217;espérance de vie des administrations locales (avant la réforme électorale de 1993) était de moins de deux ans, seulement un quart du temps nécessaire en moyenne pour conclure le cheminement pour l&#8217;approbation d&#8217;un prg: on pourrait donc soutenire la thèse que le cycle politico-électoral et le cycle administratif du plan ont presque toujours été dissociés, avec évidente faiblesse de l&#8217;un et de l&#8217;autre.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="fr-FR">Dans cette situation, le problème administratif devient vite un problème technique et politique: c&#8217;est-à-dire, comment rendre plus flexible les choix des plans par rapport à la rigidité temporelle et technique des vieux instruments de planification.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR">Si la situation italienne auraient pu passer pour extraordinaire iusqu&#8217;au la réforme, on ne pas dire le meme pour le problème du plan et de son réalisation &#8220;flexible&#8221;. Pendant les dix dernières années, on a en effet assisté en Europe à une extraordinaire fragmentation des formes du plan, soit juridiquement légitimées, soit ayant au contraire seulement une valeur informelle et locale, soit enfin par recours aux &#8220;grands projets&#8221; realisé au dehors de l&#8217;aménagement ordinaire (</span><sup><span style="font-size: xx-small"><span lang="fr-FR"><a class="sdfootnoteanc" name="sdfootnote3anc" href="#sdfootnote3sym"><sup>3</sup></a></span></span></sup><span lang="fr-FR">). </span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR">La révision du plan est donc une parmi plusieurs éscamotages ou ruses pour introduire une ligne à double voie: le <em>status quo </em>et le nouveau dossier, donc des règles et le projet de règles nouvelles. Cette duplicité potentielle des règles peut être considérée comme un des indicateurs possibles d&#8217;une souplesse, à la fois institutionelle et culturelle, du rapport à la norme publique, souplesse qui a caracterisé sans doute l&#8217;expérience italienne de l&#8217;urbanisme des dernières années. </span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR">En générale, la flexibilité est la conséquence des rapports entre le domaine des décideurs et le domaine des techniciens. <em>On contourne la technique abstraite pour obtenir un surcroit d’efficacité</em>. On aura bien évidenment plusieurs nuance plus ou moins “vertuex”. Une souplesse tout simplement &#8220;dérèglementaire&#8221; tiendra à avoir &#8220;pour fondement les pratiques clientélistes dans la distribution des biens publics, et pour effet les pratiques négatives illégales” (Verpraet 1994) tel que les &#8220;abus des autorisation de construire&#8221; dans le cas de Rome; mais, en même temps, une flexibilité plus orientée tendra au contraire à contourner les blocages administratifs &#8220;par le développement par fragment de nouvelles formes d&#8217;organisation plus productives sur les lacunes du secteur public&#8221; (<em>ibidem</em>). </span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR">Mais il vaut mieux souligner ce que la flexibilité (et son envers, le blocage qu’on verra ici après) a eu en commun avec ce qui caractérise l&#8217;action publique depuis toujours (de Lara 1993): elle peut apparaître comme soit <em>trop politisée</em> (quand les problèmes techniques sont réglés par des choix politiques); soit, au contraire, <em>pas assez politisée </em>(quand les choix techniques s&#8217;avèrent étrangers aux règles de la représentation politique et au jeu des coalitions décisionnelles). </span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR">Le manque d&#8217;efficacité est un reproche typiquement libéral: la vague libériste voudrait étendre au plan d&#8217;urbanisme la flexibilité, la spécialisation, la réduction des délais, la mobilité dans l&#8217;espace, les caractères de la production industrielle plus moderne (</span><sup><span style="font-size: xx-small"><span lang="fr-FR"><a class="sdfootnoteanc" name="sdfootnote4anc" href="#sdfootnote4sym"><sup>4</sup></a></span></span></sup><span lang="fr-FR">). Le marché remplacerait la formule Étatique classique, qui associait technique et politique dans l&#8217;action publique, par le recours aux forces du marché: deréglementation et dépolitisation, donc, progresseraient ensemble. Ce remarque a été justement inversé (Crosta 1991): au contraire, le retour de la politique affecterait les entreprises privées elles-mêmes. </span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="fr-FR">Le mélange correct est donc un problème qui concerne tous les systèmes de plan, en particulier ceux qui s&#8217;adressent aux situations innovantes (où la &#8220;puissance&#8221; publique opère un transfert de responsabilité politique vers des sujets privés); ces dernières étant des situations de mobilisation &#8220;des acteurs publics et privés, dans le cadre d&#8217;une action conjointe, visant des objets de négociation jugés réalisables dans une zone spécifique&#8221; (Crosta 1991).</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="fr-FR">
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="fr-FR"><em>2. Le blocage</em></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR">Le années &#8216;80 marquent un clivage dans le processus de développement de la capitale. Par rapport aux années passées, les transformations physiques de la ville sont limitées, c&#8217;est-à-dire que les réalisations sont peu nombreuses; les transformations touchent des zones peu étendues, les changements dans les fonctions principales sont limités. Si on regarde le programme exposé par le délégué à l&#8217;Urbanisme pendant la III Conference municipale sur l&#8217;urbanisme de 1986, on voit une liste d&#8217;interventions prioritaires qui n&#8217;ont pas encore été realisées (</span><sup><span style="font-size: xx-small"><span lang="fr-FR"><a class="sdfootnoteanc" name="sdfootnote5anc" href="#sdfootnote5sym"><sup>5</sup></a></span></span></sup><span lang="fr-FR">). Mais le blocage n&#8217;est pas un dispositif total. </span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="fr-FR">La production immobilière a avancée, mais souvent au ralenti; la ville a changée. C&#8217;est un changement qui se déroule tout à l&#8217;intérieur du cadre bâti et du cadre normatif donné, par un accroissement continu mais léger et par des innovation des usages plutot que des ruptures du tissu urbaine. Fort d&#8217;un consensus monolitique, on a utilisé depuis les années soixante un système de planning immobile et fossilisé pour faire des projets au coup par coup avec de douteux résultats: pas d&#8217;opposition univoque autour de la même question, pas de compétition non plus, pas de programmes à moyen ou long terme (pour l’histoire de la politique du plan à Rome: Fried, 1973).</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR">Ailleurs (Cremaschi 1991) on a expliquée cette situation empruntant à la polémologie l&#8217;image du conflit &#8220;à basse intensité&#8221; pour décrire le soudain <em>blocage</em> du cours des décisions. Le blocage n’est pas l’absence de tout changement: c’est une sorte de change qu’on peut decrire comme à &#8220;<em>basse</em> <em>intensité</em>&#8221; par rapport à la violente croissance urbaine à partir des années trentes jusqu&#8217;aux années Soixantes. C&#8217;est une transformation qualitative et fonctionelle de l&#8217;usage, des rôles, de la hiérarchie des diverses partie de la ville. Il est donc important de souligner que le blocage (de l&#8217;immobilier, du foncier, de l&#8217;économie urbaine) est à la foi une ruse du gouvernement de la ville, et l&#8217;inverse &#8220;symétrique&#8221; de la souplesse italienne du rapport à la norme publique.<em> On a contourné la technique (prévision) pour obtenir un <span style="font-size: small"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,serif">surcro</span></span>î<span style="font-size: small"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,serif">t</span></span> de consensus</em>.</span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR">Le blocage a été donc la &#8220;formule&#8221; d&#8217;une conjoncture qui a administré des avantages (souvent illicites) par des choix qui n&#8217;étaient ni publics ni optimaux; il a opéré, dans une situation d&#8217;incertitude et de mouvement comme un système de filtrage, mortifiant en même temps la raison technique et politique. Le système du blocage a vite laissé voir les conséquences négatives, surtout en termes de choix tout sauf optimaux, inefficacité économique, corruption et coûts croissants. Une des raisons en est la faiblesse des fonctions qui, en France notamment, &#8220;sont associées à la maîtrise d&#8217;ouvrage publique et privée (programmation, évaluation, édification&#8221;) (Verpraet 1994), dont la rationalisation se heurte à la faiblesse de l&#8217;administration publique surtout au niveau local, autant du point de vue technique que du point de vue des ressources économiques (la taxation locale est encore étroitement limitée, tandis que les normes gérées par l&#8217;État imposent des standards techniques élevés); en général, on inpute à l&#8217;instabilité et l&#8217;incertitude politique la déstructuration de l&#8217;appareil administratif de l&#8217;État (</span><sup><span style="font-size: xx-small"><span lang="fr-FR"><a class="sdfootnoteanc" name="sdfootnote6anc" href="#sdfootnote6sym"><sup>6</sup></a></span></span></sup><span lang="fr-FR">). </span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR">Quoi que bien d&#8217;autres résultats auraient pu être assurés par des voies plus “rationelles”, le blocage se révèle avoir été une ressource inestimable pour le pouvoir politique de l’époque. Pas des grands projets, donc, mais en revanche l&#8217;association parmi les promoteurs, le control de toute proposition innovant qui veuillisse traumatiser le “bloc” social autour de la coalition dominante (</span><sup><span style="font-size: xx-small"><span lang="fr-FR"><a class="sdfootnoteanc" name="sdfootnote7anc" href="#sdfootnote7sym"><sup>7</sup></a></span></span></sup><span lang="fr-FR">). </span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR">Mais sa limite n&#8217;est pas simplement une limite d&#8217;<em>efficacité</em> de l&#8217;action publique. De fait, le blocage a signifié la &#8220;dé-légitimation&#8221; autant des procédures de décision basées sur des critères techniques que des procédures basées sur des critères politiques: l&#8217;administration a finit par favoriser un critère de sélection &#8220;opportuniste&#8221;, qui récompense la coalition des intérêts plus habiles et plus résistants. </span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="fr-FR">
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="fr-FR"><em>3. Niveaux d’action </em></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR">A Rome comme ailleurs la sortie du blocage est suivie de l&#8217;extension des règles publiques et de l&#8217;approbation de programmes politiques. Mais, car &#8220;<em>the era of the grand plan has passed</em>&#8221; (comme on le récite à la London Docklands Development Corporation), les villes semble sutout nécessiter un programme qui soit &#8220;un programme politique, qui puisse définir avec clarté les buts, les objectifs, les secteurs et les lieux où on désire intervenir&#8221; (Folin 1990).</span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR">La réforme administrative et électorale du 1993 a donné aux maires un surplus de légitimité et d&#8217;efficacité par rapport au niveau institutionnel central (quoi que le &#8220;tournant&#8221; vers la deuxième République est encore loin de l&#8217;accomplissement). D&#8217;autre part, les procédures dans le domaine de l&#8217;urbanisme n&#8217;ont pas changé: le changement s&#8217;opère donc dans le cadre législatif et administratif connu, sans autre nouveauté que le recours aux outils d&#8217;&#8221;autocoordination&#8221; au niveau local pour avancer les réformes que l&#8217;État ou les Régions tardent à introduire. </span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="fr-FR">Ces changements semblent préceder une &#8220;ré-orientation&#8221; des politiques urbaines et de la culture politique locale (Perulli 1994). On peut déterminer, du point de vue analytique, au-moins trois niveaux d&#8217;action soutenant différentes organisations urbanistiques. Chaque niveaux peut être interprétée comme un terrain possible de développement de la ville, dans laquelle s&#8217;inscrivent -à divers degrés- les éventuels programmes d&#8217;action des sujets publics et privés.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR">Ces terrains sont <em>alternatifs</em> car ils fournissent diverses solutions à des problèmes comuns: par exemple, à la localisation du tertiaire urbaine, la typologie ou la déconcentration des nouveaux logements. Mais naturellement ils produisent des effets qui, bien que contradictoires, sont co-présents en même temps. On peut donc considérer que la &#8220;hétérogénéité&#8221; des politiques urbaines de Rome, qui souvent désoriente autant le spécialiste que l&#8217;observateur, remonte à ce brassage (Cremaschi 1994a).</span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="fr-FR">Dans la schématisation qui suit sont reportés quelques exemples illustrant la manière dont les trois principaux sujets publics contribuent à chacun terrain, quoique de toute évidence chaque sujet contribue de manière prédominante à une strategie spécifique:</p>
<p style="margin-left: 14.2pt;text-indent: -14.2pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR">- 	la<em> ville capitale </em>affronte le problème de l&#8217;organisation du &#8220;poste de commandement&#8221; de l&#8217;État, et s&#8217;est surtout manifestée avec des projets de &#8220;re-concentration&#8221; directionnelle et de création des districts de business modernes, tel que l&#8217;a été en son temps l&#8217;Eur, quartier des ministères choisi par le régime fasciste pour l&#8217;Exposition de 1942. Sur le papier, il existe un secteur privilégié de la périphérie pour la &#8220;re-concentration&#8221; des bureaux publics; en pratique, la concentration continue autour de la ville politique (</span><sup><span style="font-size: xx-small"><span lang="fr-FR"><a class="sdfootnoteanc" name="sdfootnote8anc" href="#sdfootnote8sym"><sup>8</sup></a></span></span></sup><span lang="fr-FR">). </span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 14.2pt;text-indent: -14.1pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR">-	la<em> ville globale </em>(pas tant de la politique et de la finance, comme New-York, Tokyo etc., mais de l&#8217;esprit, comme Jérusalem ou Calcutta) affronte le problème des fonctions d&#8217;excellence au niveau mondial (religion, tourisme, culture, sport, diplomatie) et s&#8217;est manifestée dans les propositions de grandes infrastructures: aéroports, transports en commun, liaisons variées, centres technologiques, grands aménagements de musées et centres culturels etc. Du point de vue du territoire, on ne privilégie pas un lieu spécifique, et même d’une certaine façon se désintéresse du centre traditionnel. Eventuellement, on privilégie le décentrage sélectif de certaines fonctions importantes vers les pôles périphériques, mettant en évidence le caractère différencié des &#8220;vocations&#8221; fonctionnelles des secteurs territoriaux de la ville. Elle implique une modernisation diffuse qui peut procéder par projets graduels et est relativement indifférente au rôle de capitale institutionnelle de Rome. </span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 14.2pt;text-indent: -14.1pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR">-	l<em>&#8216;agglomeration urbaine</em>, enfin, affronte le problème de l&#8217;organisation urbaine, en particulier le problème du logement et, plus récemment, le problème des transports et de la mobilité (l&#8217;identité des grands quartiers périphériques, la spécialisation fonctionnelle des secteurs urbains, les liaisons entre le centre et les communes de l&#8217;aire métropolitaine, etc, sont d&#8217;autres problèmes importants). Il serait laborieux de rendre compte des actions des administrations de diverses époques et des indications politiques, mais en résumé nous pouvons affirmer qu&#8217;on a toléré une dispersion élevée des interventions ainsi qu&#8217;une considérable production informelle de logements illégaux. En ce qui concerne le territoire, on ne définit pas de claires stratégies si non en termes négatifs envers la ville existante: en fait, la construction informelle abusive a privilégié la dispersion résidentielle; tandis que le logement public a privilegié la banlieue (</span><sup><span style="font-size: xx-small"><span lang="fr-FR"><a class="sdfootnoteanc" name="sdfootnote9anc" href="#sdfootnote9sym"><sup>9</sup></a></span></span></sup><span lang="fr-FR">).</span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="fr-FR">
<ol>
<li>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt"><em><span lang="fr-FR">La ligne de 	partage des acteurs </span></em></p>
</li>
</ol>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR">Les differents niveaux d’actions articulent aussi les modalités de négotiation et d&#8217;accord entre acteurs public et privés. La première raison est que des sujets divers ont opéré sur les differents niveaux. La seconde, est que chaque action demande aux politiques des specifiques contributions.</span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR">On voit alors que la condition pour la réalisation de la première grande strategie était une forte intentionalité, et l&#8217;accord résolu par au moins des deux principaux sujets publics, l&#8217;État et la Commune. Par exemple, tout effort de renouveau de l&#8217;urbanisme et les programmes des grands projets de Rome ont été liés iusqu&#8217;au présent à la (re)localisation des services de l&#8217;État. Mais ces &#8220;affaires d&#8217;État&#8221; sont menées face à une compétence municipale sur l&#8217;urbanisme; et d&#8217;autre part, la municipalité revendique la reconnaissance du rôle même de capitale, contribution que l&#8217;État a de la peine à concéder dans la mesure demandée. Sans volonté de collaborer ou, au contraire, sans pouvoir de coercition, le jeu entre la commune et l&#8217;État tend souvent à annuler n&#8217;importe quelle initiative. On peut donc soutenir que le SDO a été la plus célèbre victime du blocage du système, car les ressources de consensus à mobiliser auraient d être beaucoup plus fortes que celles réellement impliquées. À l&#8217;accord auraient pu participer aussi des entreprises et des promoteurs privés ou semi-privés, mais seulement en fonction de l&#8217;accord entre le deux sujets, élément qui au contraire est manqué. On peut aussi conclure que des operations trop vastes ne satisferaient pas la qualité d&#8217;un système decisionnelle dispersif et pluriel.</span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR">Le deuxième horizon strategique serait en apparence plus concurrentiel que le premièr, car il nécessiterait de nouveaux acteurs et promoteurs dans tous les domaines d&#8217;&#8221;excellence&#8221; (tels que les domaines religieux, culturel, cinématographique, sportif, etc). Mais en effet on ne registre qu&#8217;une sujet reéllement actif, bien qu&#8217;il soit tout à fait étrange au logique partenarial. En fait, les instituts religieux du Vatican et les grandes congrégations ont réussi à réaliser, dans les tournures du prg, une sorte de centre directionnel dans le Secteur Ouest, au service du catholicisme universel. En ce qui concerne certains aspects des politiques urbaines, on peut en effet soutenir que trois <em>souverainetés</em> se confrontent, dissemblables et relativement indépendantes: l&#8217;État, la Commune, le Vatican. Les relations entre ces trois sujets n&#8217;ont presque jamais été linéaires, pas même au moment de la rédaction des programmes. La superposition institutionnelle est donc le double de celle d&#8217;autres capitales, où elle se manifeste pourtant dans divers rapports (districts fédéraux etc). De plus, chaque sujet est en réalité multiple: par exemple, autant l&#8217;industrie publique que les finances du Vatican ont &#8220;joué&#8221; de manière autonome par rapport à l&#8217;État et à l&#8217;Eglise, participant directement à l&#8217;industrie de la construction de la capitale (</span><sup><span style="font-size: xx-small"><span lang="fr-FR"><a class="sdfootnoteanc" name="sdfootnote10anc" href="#sdfootnote10sym"><sup>10</sup></a></span></span></sup><span lang="fr-FR">).</span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR">Enfin, les logiques ayant opéré en accord avec le troisième horizon ont été capables de s&#8217;insérer dans les interstices du système administratif et politique. C&#8217;est le cas du directionnel qui s&#8217;est beaucoup développé à Rome, bien que moins qu&#8217;en Europe (</span><sup><span style="font-size: xx-small"><span lang="fr-FR"><span lang="fr-FR"><a class="sdfootnoteanc" name="sdfootnote11anc" href="#sdfootnote11sym"><sup>11</sup></a></span></span></span></sup><span lang="fr-FR">), et dans lequel la &#8220;déconcentration&#8221; des services techniques publics (les services de la Banque centrale, une des Universités, une partie de la recherche et de l&#8217;information statistique) a pris un poids considérable. C&#8217;est aussi le cas des actions informelles, les pratiques des &#8220;nouveaux castors&#8221; (Vollet 1995<span style="font-size: x-small">)</span>.</span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="fr-FR">
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt"><em><span lang="fr-FR">5. Le partenariat</span></em></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR">Les innovations des années &#8216;90 essayeraient d&#8217;obtenir une plus grande flexibilité et de meilleurs résultats en faisant recours à: a) une notion stratégique du plan d&#8217;urbanisme, quoique la législation de l&#8217;État enregistre un profond rétard en ce qui concerne l&#8217;aspect technique, l&#8217;urbanisme et le droit foncier; b) la negotiation avec les principaux acteurs, bien que les procédures du partenariat soient abouti à peu de résultats iusqu&#8217;au aujourd&#8217;hui. </span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR">On peut donc formuler deux hypothèses: qu&#8217;un transfert de responsabilités soit en cours du contexte national au contexte local (Cremaschi 1994b); et que dans cette réformulation on puisse entrevoir, surtout en perspective, des combinaisons nouvelles entre décideurs (publics ou privés) et critères de légitimation (politique ou technique) (Crosta 1991; de Lara 1992). C&#8217;est là qu&#8217;on trouve la grande contradiction de cette phase: l&#8217;administration locale voudrait poursuivre des objectives de grande envergure, mais pour l&#8217;instant, à bien du mal ad atteindre le but minimal d&#8217;&#8221;un <em>programme politique</em>, qui puisse définir avec clarté les buts, les objectifs, les secteurs et les lieux où on désire intervenir&#8221; (Folin 1990). Les nouvelles administrations locales, à Rome comme ailleurs, paraissent donc suivre pour le moment le modèle de l&#8217;extension des règles publiques (</span><sup><span style="font-size: xx-small"><span lang="fr-FR"><a class="sdfootnoteanc" name="sdfootnote12anc" href="#sdfootnote12sym"><sup>12</sup></a></span></span></sup><span lang="fr-FR">), n&#8217;étant pas assez fortes ni compétentes pour évoquer des projets plus ambitieux. </span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR">D&#8217;autre part, on ne trouve à Rome d&#8217;autre sujets capables de proposition (tandis que pour Milan, par example, la situation est differente: voir Fareri 1990). </span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR">L&#8217;Etat n&#8217;a jamais proposé (ni imposé) un projet pour sa capitale, et bien que souvent des entreprises publiques (sourtout du batiment, ou des promoteurs immobilières) ont essayés des accords avec la municipalité, ils ont failli le pari le plus important, le nuoveau quartier des affairs. </span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR">Le seul cas véritable d&#8217;accord de partenariat c&#8217;est passé avec le &#8220;Ferrovie dello Stato&#8221;, la régie -maintenant entreprise publique- qui gère les chemins de fer. Quoique propriété de l&#8217;Etat, le Fs ont jouit d&#8217;une vaste autonomie pendant les dernières cinq ans; en effet, c&#8217;est l&#8217;accord qui scelle la fin de la question de Rome-capitale et concrétise d&#8217;autre perspectives strategiques pour la ville. </span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR">L&#8217;accord poursuivi entre la mairie et le tout-puissant pdg de Fs régarderait un échange complexe: a) le Fs aurait concentré des important ressources sur le renoveau du service de transport metropolitaine, le pivot potentiel d&#8217;une nouvelle organisation urbaine; b) tandis que la nouvelle administration aurait permis le développement du patrimoine fonçière de Fs. </span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR">En suite on a envisagé l&#8217;aire de la gare Tiburtina comme le pôle directionel de la municipalité, tandis que l&#8217;ancien projet du quartier Sdo venait d&#8217;être éffacé. Plus récemment, la gare S. Pietro, tout près du Vatican, a été choisi come terminal des pèlerins du prochaine Année Sainte,  et donc comme site des nouveaux équipements hotellières, de transport, etc.</span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR">Donc, le domaine férroviaire résulte la ressource strategique qui a été joué deux fois, une première pour l&#8217;organisation de l&#8217;aire métropolitaine; une deuxième, pour l&#8217;objectif strategique de la qualification de la ville, au niveau globale, pour le tourisme religieux. L&#8217;accord pragmatique avec Fs a été &#8220;enlargi&#8221; au table avec le Vatican, en raison sourtout qu&#8217;il apparut faisable à bref délai.</span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR">A fur et à mesure que ces combinations -d&#8217;acteurs, projets, ressources économiques, compétences techniques &#8211; reussissent, une formulation nouvelle des stratégies urbaines se dégage; si l&#8217;on veut, un nuoveau ordre &#8220;construit&#8221; du plan</span></p>
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<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt"><em><span lang="fr-FR">Reférences</span></em></p>
<p style="margin-left: 28.4pt;text-indent: -28.4pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR"><span style="font-size: x-small">Agnew J., 1995, <em>Rome</em>, J. Wiley, London</span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 28.4pt;text-indent: -28.4pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR"><span style="font-size: x-small">Bagnasco A., 1996, “Le développement diffus: le modèle italien”, in I. Sachs, <em>Quelles villes, pour quel développement</em>, Puf, Paris</span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 28.4pt;text-indent: -28.4pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR"><span style="font-size: x-small">Bellicini L., 1991, a cura di, <em>La costruzione della città europea negli anni &#8216;80</em>, Roma, Credito Fondiario.</span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 28.4pt;text-indent: -28.4pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR"><span style="font-size: x-small">Cremaschi, M., 1991, &#8220;Urbanistica a bassa intensità: il caso di Roma&#8221;, in L. Bellicini, 1991.</span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 28.4pt;text-indent: -28.4pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR"><span style="font-size: x-small">Cremaschi M., 1994a, &#8220;L&#8217;organizzazione territoriale dell&#8217;area romana. Dinamiche e rappresentazioni degli anni Ottanta&#8221;, in A. Fubini, a cura di, <em>I problemi delle grandi aree metropolitane</em>, F. Angeli</span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 28.4pt;text-indent: -28.4pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR"><span style="font-size: x-small">Cremaschi M., 1994b, &#8220;La denazionalizzazione del problema abitativo&#8221;, <em>Urbanistica</em> 102</span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 28.4pt;text-indent: -28.4pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR"><span style="font-size: x-small">Crosta P.L., 1990, &#8220;La politica urbanistica&#8221;, in B. Dente, curateur, <em>Le politiche pubbliche in Italia</em>, il Mulino, Bologna</span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 28.4pt;text-indent: -28.4pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR"><span style="font-size: x-small">Crosta P.L., 1991, &#8220;Politiche urbanistiche, nuovi attori e trasformazione della città&#8221;, in L. Bellicini, 1991 </span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 28.4pt;text-indent: -28.4pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR"><span style="font-size: x-small">de Lara Ph., 1992, &#8220;Les langages de l&#8217;État&#8221;, voir <em>Le futur de l&#8217;État</em>, Ministère del l&#8217;Equipement-PCA, Paris, 17 feb. 1992</span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 28.4pt;text-indent: -28.4pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR"><span style="font-size: x-small">Fareri P., 1990, &#8220;La progettazione del governo a Milano: nuovi attori per la metropoli matura&#8221;, in B. Dente, L. Bobbio, P. Fareri, M.Morisi, <em>Metropoli per progetti</em>, il Mulino, Bologna</span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 14.2pt;text-indent: -14.2pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR"><span style="font-size: x-small">Folin M., 1990, &#8220;Il piano che è fallito&#8221;, <em>MicroMega</em>, 1</span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 28.4pt;text-indent: -28.4pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR"><span style="font-size: x-small">Fried R. C., 1973, <em>Planning the eternal City, roman Politics and Planning since Word War II</em>, Yale UP, New Haven and London</span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 28.4pt;text-indent: -28.4pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR"><span style="font-size: x-small">Indovina, 1973, <em>Lo spreco edilizio</em>, Marsilio, Padova</span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 28.4pt;text-indent: -28.4pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR"><span style="font-size: x-small">Martinotti G., Vicari S., 1994, &#8220;La formazione del piano regolatore generale&#8221;, in AA.VV., <em>Le decisioni di opera pubblica e di urbanistica nelle città</em>,. Archivio Isap, Nuova Serie, 7, Giuffré, Milano </span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 28.4pt;text-indent: -28.4pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR"><span style="font-size: x-small">Muller P., 1990, <em>Les politiques pubbliques</em>, Puf, Paris</span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 28.4pt;text-indent: -28.4pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR"><span style="font-size: x-small">Perulli P., 1994, &#8220;La costruzione delle nuove politiche urbane&#8221;, in <em>Casabella</em>, pp. 23 et ss.</span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 28.4pt;text-indent: -28.4pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR"><span style="font-size: x-small">Seronde Babonaux A.M., 1980, <em>De l&#8217;Urbs à la ville: Rome. Croissance d&#8217;une capitale</em>, Edisud, Aix en Provence, (tr. it. 1983)</span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 28.4pt;text-indent: -28.4pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR"><span style="font-size: x-small">Thœnig J.-C., 1985, &#8220;L&#8217;analyse des politiques publiques&#8221;, in M. Grawitz, J. Leca, <em>Traité de science politique</em>, t. IV, Puf, Paris</span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 28.4pt;text-indent: -28.4pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR"><span style="font-size: x-small">Tocci W., 1993, <em>Roma, che ne facciamo</em>, Editori Riuniti, Roma</span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 28.4pt;text-indent: -28.4pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR"><span style="font-size: x-small">Verpraet G., 1994, &#8220;Plans et projets en horizon flexible, trajectoire Franco-Italiennes&#8221;, en <em>Recherches sur le projet et les concepteurs</em>, Ministère du Logement-Pca, Paris (Actes du séminaire Euro-conception, Paris, 28-29 sept. 1993)</span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 28.4pt;text-indent: -28.4pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="fr-FR"><span style="font-size: x-small">Vollet C. 1995, <em>Rome et ses “borgate”, 1960-1980, des marques urbaines à la ville diffuse, </em>Ecole Française de Rome, Rome</span></span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">
<div id="sdfootnote1">
<p class="sdfootnote"><a class="sdfootnotesym-western" name="sdfootnote1sym" href="#sdfootnote1anc">1</a> Dans une démarche pragmatique, comme un &#8220;programme 	d&#8217;action&#8221; de l&#8217;autorité publique ou gouvernementale 	(Thoenig 1985); en termes systémiques et régulatifs, 	comme un &#8220;processus de médiation sociale&#8221; (Muller 	1990); ou encore, d&#8217;un point de vue constructiviste, comme l&#8217;outil 	d&#8217;une analyse, &#8220;construit&#8221; par l&#8217;observateur (Crosta 	1990). D’autre part, le désordre n&#8217;est que &#8220;le 	mouvement, plus l&#8217;incertitude&#8221; (selon Balandier) donc deux 	idées centrales à toute analyse économique et 	politique.</p>
</div>
<div id="sdfootnote2">
<p class="sdfootnote"><a class="sdfootnotesym-western" name="sdfootnote2sym" href="#sdfootnote2anc">2</a> Une étude de Martinotti et Vicari (1994), ayant étudié 	les procédures pour l&#8217;approbation d&#8217;un prg (&#8221;piano 	regolatore generale&#8221;) ,donne une idée des problèmes 	administratifs. Le temps minimum entre l&#8217;envoi du dossier et 	l&#8217;approbation du plan est de deux ans, alors qu&#8217;en moyenne on arrive 	presque à huit ans. En général, selon la même 	recherche, les prg sont plutôt vieux (en moyenne, le prg a 12 	ans d&#8217;âge; mais pour plus de la moitié des communes de 	l&#8217;échantillon, l&#8217;âge est plus avancé). Il est 	certain qu&#8217;en absence de plans, ou avec des plans et projets 	veillis, l&#8217;incertitude en matière d&#8217;urbanisme augmente, et 	ajoute à l&#8217;incertitude de l&#8217;économie.</p>
</div>
<div id="sdfootnote3">
<p class="sdfootnote"><a class="sdfootnotesym-western" name="sdfootnote3sym" href="#sdfootnote3anc">3</a> Comme effet de l&#8217;introduction de nouvelles procédures dans la 	réglementation nationale: le contrat de ville, en Italie les 	&#8220;accords de programme&#8221;&#8230;, le Plan Programme pour l&#8217;Est 	parisien, en Italie des &#8220;délibérations 	programmatique&#8221; des municipalités&#8230;. Dans les plans 	généraux plus récents on voit, parfois, un 	surcroît d&#8217;attention donné à la définition 	détaillée des aspects concernant la réalisation 	de manière à ne pas avoir à approuver des plans 	executifs ultérieurs avant de réaliser les travaux. 	Enfin, on a vu la diffusion de l&#8217;institut du &#8220;plan 	préliminaire&#8221;, sorte de schéma directeur local 	sans efficacité légale, qui annonce les principales 	interventions visées. Toujours dans la recherche indiquée 	(Martinotti, Vicari 1994), cette situation est bien illustrée: 	en tout cas, 65% des communes a en cours la &#8220;révision&#8221; 	du prg, une procédure beaucoup plus simple qu&#8217;un nouveau 	plan.</p>
</div>
<div id="sdfootnote4">
<p class="sdfootnote"><a class="sdfootnotesym-western" name="sdfootnote4sym" href="#sdfootnote4anc">4</a> La méfiance répandue envers le plan d&#8217;urbanisme est 	exemplifié par la remarque contenue dans une étude 	redigée pour le Ministère du Bilan et du Plan: &#8220;un 	programme d&#8217;investissement ne peut pas être subordonné 	d&#8217;une façon rigide aux contenus et aux procédures 	d&#8217;élaboration des plans d&#8217;urbanisme&#8221;.</p>
</div>
<div id="sdfootnote5">
<p class="sdfootnote"><a class="sdfootnotesym-western" name="sdfootnote5sym" href="#sdfootnote5anc">5</a> Le blocage frappe d&#8217;abord la réalisation du SDO; le projet de 	Gregotti e Benevolo pour le grand Parc Archéologique du 	Centre Historique et de la rue Appia Antica; le Centre des Congrès 	et d&#8217;expositions, l&#8217;auditorium de Flaminio (dont le projet a été 	presenté en 1994 par R. Piano); les nouveaux Marchés 	Généraux, le centre ferroviaire de SetteBagni, le port 	turistique à Ostie, le renouveau du quartier de la Gare 	Termini; l&#8217;agrandissement de la seconde Université, la 	réalisation de la troisième Université et le 	plan du quartier de la gare Ostiense; le reseau  ferroviaire 	metropolitaine, etc. Seuls échappent au blocage la deuxième 	ligne du metro, les projets pour le Mondial de Football <em>Italia 	&#8216;90</em>: le renouveau du stade de football, la nouvelle liaison 	ferroviaire rapide avec l&#8217;aéréoport de Fiumicino, 	outre quelques grands magasins dans la banlieue, des grands 	ensembles et nombreux pavillons illégaux.</p>
</div>
<div id="sdfootnote6">
<p class="sdfootnote"><a class="sdfootnotesym-western" name="sdfootnote6sym" href="#sdfootnote6anc">6</a> Dans ce contexte, il n&#8217;est pas étonnant que les travaux 	publics réalisés en Italie pour le &#8220;rendez-vous- 	spectacle&#8221; du Mondial de football de 1990 aient coûtés, 	selon les évaluations, de 6.500 à 8.000 milliards de 	lires, plus du double coût (en valeurs de l&#8217;époque) des 	Grands Travaux parisiens, ou des investissements de l&#8217;état 	anglais pour les Docklands de Londres (Bellicini 1991). Pendant la 	même période, d&#8217;autre part, la reconstruction de Naples 	après le tremblement de terre a coûté trois fois 	la somme prévue.</p>
</div>
<div id="sdfootnote7">
<p class="sdfootnote"><a class="sdfootnotesym-western" name="sdfootnote7sym" href="#sdfootnote7anc">7</a> Voir à ce propos V. Parlato, “Il blocco edilizio”, in F. 	Indovina, 1973, qui anticipe les études sur le role politique 	de la “<em>growth machine</em>”.</p>
</div>
<div id="sdfootnote8">
<p class="sdfootnote"><a class="sdfootnotesym-western" name="sdfootnote8sym" href="#sdfootnote8anc">8</a> Le siège théorique de la reconcentration est le 	secteur oriental où, dans les années soixantes fut 	désigné le SDO (le Système Directionnel 	Oriental: presque 10 millions de mc. de bureaux, à l&#8217;origine 	même 40 millions, autour d&#8217;un axe infrastructurel). A 	l&#8217;origine, l&#8217;idée était que le SDO puisse être 	considéré comme une opération d&#8217;avantages 	réciproques pour la commune et l&#8217;état: en fait, la 	&#8220;re-localisation&#8221; des Ministères de l&#8217;état 	aurait rationnalisé les sièges administratifs, et 	aurait induit la &#8220;re-qualification&#8221; de la périphérie 	orientale de la ville (permettant entre autres de réaliser 	infrastructures, métro, parcs etc). Au contraire, l&#8217;état 	garde encore plus de 70% de ses propres bureaux dans le centre ou à 	l&#8217;Eur (environ 8 millions de mc.); et il a agrandi les sièges 	ou en a réalisé de nouveaux (3 millions de mc. 	seulement dans les années 80) faisant recours à des 	procédures spéciales qui ne tiennent pas compte du prg 	de la commune. La valeur  du SDO aujourd&#8217;hui est donc presque nulle 	(Perulli 1994): mais on ne sait pas encore quels programmes pourront 	hériter de ce rôle.</p>
</div>
<div id="sdfootnote9">
<p class="sdfootnote"><a class="sdfootnotesym-western" name="sdfootnote9sym" href="#sdfootnote9anc">9</a> Les équipements urbains ont été maintes fois 	réalisés après les quartiers abusifs; le nombre 	des logements publics a été limité dans le 	temps et de toute façon récemment réduit à 	cause du manque de ressources (l&#8217;incidence de la construction 	publique, égale à 60% du total en 1980, s&#8217;est trouvée 	réduite à 11% dix ans plus tard). Le travail 	concernant les infrastructures de transport a été à 	la fois tardif et onéreux (au cours des années 80, il 	est monté de 24,7% à 49,4% des investissements de la 	Commune) (voir: Cremaschi 1991).</p>
</div>
<div id="sdfootnote10">
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt"><a class="sdfootnotesym-western" name="sdfootnote10sym" href="#sdfootnote10anc">10</a> <span style="font-size: x-small">La présence de la Cité 	du Vatican, des pèlerinages, des audiences, des sièges 	diplomatiques etc., impose de lourds péages d&#8217;organisation à 	la commune de Rome. Prenons comme exemple l&#8217;année Sainte 	(celle de 1950, ou la prochaine, de 2000): il s&#8217;agit d&#8217;un événement 	typiquement urbain, comme une grande foire ou une exposition, qui 	&#8220;consumme&#8221; la ville dans son ensemble pour plusieurs mois 	et nécessite des investissements en hotels, réseaux de 	transports publics, parkings, surveillances etc. C&#8217;est le Vatican 	qui décide des dates (ce qui n&#8217;exclut pas les surprises: 	l&#8217;actuel pape a promu une année Sainte extraordinaire entre 	les deux dates), la tutèle de l&#8217;initiative est attribuée 	par le Concordat de 1984 à l&#8217;état italien, et ce qui 	concerne l&#8217;organisation retombe sur la commune de Rome.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="sdfootnote11">
<p class="sdfootnote"><a class="sdfootnotesym-western" name="sdfootnote11sym" href="#sdfootnote11anc">11</a> A Londres, pendant les années 1987-89 seulement, ont a 	terminé plus de 2,1 millions de mc.<sup> </sup>de bâtiments 	pour les activités tertiaires; plus de 6,1 million de mc. 	étaient en voie de costruction; et on disposait de permis de 	construire 12 millions de mc.<sup> </sup>encore. En région 	Île-de-France pendant les années &#8216;80 on a octroyé 	permis de contruire pour 15 millions de mc. (Bellicini 1991). En 	même temps, à Rome, on a realisé 6 millions de 	mc.<sup> </sup>pour le logement populaire et presque 1 million de 	mc.<sup> </sup>de bâtiments pour les activités 	tertiaires (Cremaschi 1991).</p>
</div>
<div id="sdfootnote12">
<p class="sdfootnote"><a class="sdfootnotesym-western" name="sdfootnote12sym" href="#sdfootnote12anc">12</a> Quoi que la réforme administratif du &#8216;93 ait donné aux 	maires un surplus de légitimité et d&#8217;efficacité 	par rapport au niveau institutionnel central, le &#8220;tournant&#8221; 	vers la deuxième République est encore loin de 	l&#8217;accomplissement. D&#8217;autre part, les procédures dans le 	domaine de l&#8217;urbanisme n&#8217;ont pas changé: le changement 	s&#8217;opère donc dans le cadre législatif et administratif 	connu, sans autre nouveauté que le recours aux outils 	d&#8217;&#8221;autocoordination&#8221; au niveau local pour avancer les 	réformes que l&#8217;état ou les Régions tardent à 	introduire. Ces changements semblent préceder une 	&#8220;ré-orientation&#8221; des politiques urbaines et de la 	culture politique locale (Perulli 1994).</p>
</div>
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		<title>A che serve il policentrismo?</title>
		<link>http://cremaschi.dipsu.it/partnerships-strategie-e-governance-del-territorio/a-che-serve-il-policentrismo/</link>
		<comments>http://cremaschi.dipsu.it/partnerships-strategie-e-governance-del-territorio/a-che-serve-il-policentrismo/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Sat, 17 Oct 2009 13:42:15 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>editore</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Partnerships, strategie e governance del territorio]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Unione Europea: politiche territoriali e sviluppo delle città]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Piani]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[politiche]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Unione Europea]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[“A che serve il policentrismo?” in I. Jogan, a cura di, Lo spazio 	europeo ad alta risoluzione, Inu ed., 2006.
<p>Tra i principi delle politiche comunitarie, il policentrismo è venuto occupando spazi crescenti (CCE 1999). Con un altro ristretto gruppo di temi, a tratti eterogenei, il policentrismo sembra aver consolidato una sorta di common wisdom nel [...]]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<address>“<a href="http://cremaschi.dipsu.it/files/2009/10/lo-spazio-europeo-a-livello-locale.pdf">A che serve il policentrismo?</a>” in I. Jogan, a cura di, Lo spazio 	europeo ad alta risoluzione, Inu ed., 2006.</address>
<p>Tra i principi delle politiche comunitarie, il policentrismo è venuto occupando spazi crescenti (CCE 1999). Con un altro ristretto gruppo di temi, a tratti eterogenei, il policentrismo sembra aver consolidato una sorta di <em>common wisdom</em> nel policy-making comunitario rivolto al territorio (Cremaschi 2005).</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">Il termine policentrismo ha un significato volutamente ambiguo (per delle rassegne: Kloosterman e Musterd 2001; BBR 2002; <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif"><span style="font-size: x-small"><span style="font-size: small"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,serif">Waterhout <em>et al.</em> 2005</span></span></span></span>): si presta ad usi diversi alle diverse scale geografiche, alludendo al riequilibrio territoriale e alla generazione di iniziative dal basso, da un lato; al potenziamento dei potenziali competitivi alla scala del continente dall’altro.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><span style="color: #000000">In linea di principio, dunque, il policentrismo sarebbe pertinente proprio perchè aperto, inconclusivo, ambiguo: consente, come altri dispositivi discorsivi delle politiche comunitarie, più di quanto definisca. </span>Come altri ‘plastikwort’ (Migliaccio 2004, 115), è uno di quei termini che acquistano significato più per la capacità di trasmigrare che per quella di denotare; contraddistinti da un elevato grado di “astrazione, aura scientifica, popolarità, potere riduttivo, libera combinabilità, assenza di dimensione storico, geografica e sociale” (<em>ivi</em>) queste nozioni gettano delle reti che unificano campi di esperienza diverse, e consentono un certo grado di libertà di riformulazione tematica. Apparentemente, un’operante metafora generativa delle politiche (Cremaschi 2005).</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><span style="color: #000000">All’atto pratico, dunque, il policentrismo ha più sfumature di significato, la cui origine è ricostruita nel prossimo paragrafo. E’ utile, in questo come in altri casi, una ricerca che, pur nella modestia dell’occasione, tracci le linee genealogiche del concetto attraverso formulazioni e pratiche. Se ne evidenziano così alcuni problemi e, un po’ contraddittoriamente con le due ispirazioni descritte in seguito, l’originale tensione esplorativa e progettuale. </span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><span style="color: #000000">Il paragrafo seguente approfondisce il primo significato possibile: un modello spaziale di equilibrio tra la concentrazione urbana e l’organizzazione in rete delle città europee; inoltre, lega la crescita urbana alla conservazione degli spazi aperti. Questo aspetto resta forse il più interessante per le ricadute sulle buone pratiche locali, ma non presenta grandi implicazioni per le politiche comunitarie.</span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><span style="color: #000000">Il terzo paragrafo esamina l’altro ingombrante significato: in questo caso, il policentrismo sembra la nozione atta a sostenere le iniziative volte a controbilanciare la regione delle capitali europee (sita a cavallo del confine franco-tedesco) e altre aree territoriali suscettibili di significativo sviluppo, limitrofe o periferiche. Un’ambizione che colloca però questa riflessione su un piano molto rischioso e pieno di tranelli.</span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><span style="color: #000000">Questo tema infatti apre al confronto con altre suggestioni, che insistono sullo sviluppo dell’intero continente, oggetto del quarto paragrafo, e affrontano questioni come la competizione globale. Su questo terreno, il policentrismo sembra destinato a restare un riferimento non conclusivo per vari motivi.</span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><span style="color: #000000">Uno di questi motivi, affrontato in seguito, riguarda la pertinenza del tema a diverse situazioni geografico insediative. Scontata la pertinenza del modello policentrico rispetto ad una classica organizzazione christalleriana, resta da chiedersi se rsulti adeguato anche per la situazione italiana. Infatti, per descrivere la configurazione territoriale italiana è stato recentemente fatto ricorso a nozioni multidimensionali come quella di ‘piattaforma’ territoriale. Senza necessariamente abbracciarle in toto, queste formule di moda (già in parte tramontate) hanno il pregio di evidenziare l’intreccio tra scale (locale e globale), e tra manifestazioni specifiche dell’azione collettiva e ambiti territoriali (per esempio, gli ex distretti ma non solo). </span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">In conclusione, questo breve saggio esamina come si è formata una nozione complessa, e quale uso ne sia stato fatto nel dibattito teorico e nella costruzione delle politiche. Che le politiche si nutrino di rappresentazioni, e che queste mostrino di possedere vita propria, non può certo sorprendere (Cremaschi 2002); ma è pur sempre opportuno riflettere su come pratiche significative si influenzino ed evolvano, e quali spazi disegnino (e quali cancellino). L’obiettivo è mostrare quanto il dibattito sul policentrismo celi, e quanto riveli, della configurazione insediativa in una situazione di transizione, nei fenomeni e nelle rappresentazioni.</p>
<h2 class="western">Per una genealogia</h2>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">Nello Schema di Sviluppo Spaziale Europeo (SSSE: <em>cfr</em>. CCE 1999) il termine policentrismo costituisce parte (degli scarsi contenuti sostantivi) delle strategie politiche per lo sviluppo bilanciato, competitivo e sostenibile.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">Come è noto, lo SSSE –pur avendo a sua volta dei prestigiosi antenati nel Consiglio d’Europa (Pagliettini 2005) &#8211; ha cercato di ricucire la trama dei diversi fili territoriali presenti nelle politiche di integrazione economica, infrastrutturali, regionali e, infine, nelle azioni urbane. “Le politiche di sviluppo territoriale mirano a garantire uno sviluppo equilibrato e sostenibile del territorio dell&#8217;Unione in armonia con gli obiettivi fondamentali della politica comunitaria, ovvero la coesione economica e sociale, la competitività economica basata sulla conoscenza e conforme ai principi dello sviluppo sostenibile, la conservazione della diversità delle risorse naturali e culturali”. Lo scopo è rimediare alle disparità presenti nel territorio europeo al fine di creare delle <em>Global Integration Zone</em> (GIZ) al di fuori del Pentagono.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">Secondo una diffusa immagine sintetica, la ‘regione delle capitali’ concentra gran parte della capacità produttiva del continente. Si tratta di un ‘pentagono’ che comprende l’area a cavallo tra Londra, Parigi, Milano, Monaco e Amburgo. Lo SSSE afferma che il Pentagono ospita -su il 20% del territorio- il 40% della popolazione e il 50% del Pil europeo (CCE 1999).</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">La polisemia della formulazione politica –una volta approvato lo SSSE- non sfugge ai ricercatori, che prontamente osservano (Davoudi 2003) che nell’idea di policentrismo converge una doppia struttura del discorso.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">Da un lato, l’idea di policentrismo è analitica: l’Europa <em>è</em> policentrica (almeno questo è il problema da verificare, la misura da ricercare). E infatti, un rapporto Espon –che esamineremo più avanti- ha misurato il grado e le potenzialità di “sviluppo policentrico” imputabili alle aree urbane con i migliori rating in demografia, trasporti, industria, governance e innovazione tecnologica. Assumendo che città competitive possono svilupparsi tra le più estese e più robuste, alcuni territori sono apparentemente più forti, nell’area Baltico-Scandinava, intorno al ponte dell’<strong><span>Øresund, e nell’arco latino da Barcellona a Montpellier, oggetto di forti investimenti statali; e forse intorno al</span></strong>l’area Mittel-orientale di <strong><span>Vienna, intorno alla caduta delle frontiere</span></strong>. In definitiva, le regioni urbane potenzialmente di rango elevato, suscettibili di incrementare il policentrismo del continente sono poche, e con poche chance di divenire GIZ. Sono potenzialità, che dipendono da progetti, che possono sorreggere al massimo idee di organizzazione regionali.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">Dall’altro lato, policentrismo è una categoria normativa: il policentrismo è <em>buono</em> per l’Europa. E’ stata più volte indicata l’incoerenza della scala di riferimento (in generale: Davoudi 2003 e Hall 2001; per adattamenti locali: Shaw e Sykes 2004): a livello macroterritoriale, la diversificazione delle aree di “integrazione economica globale” parrebbe una condizione prioritaria per la performance strategica ed economica dell’Unione Europea; a livello meso, invece, lo sviluppo regionale deve sostenere anche le aree periferiche per aumentare la coesione; a livello locale, infine, l’organizzazione metropolitana policentrica sembra più sostenibile e egualitaria.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">Non si tratta però di obiettivi omogenei, o necessariamente paralleli. Quello che viene perseguita ad una “scala” può essere non solo diverso, ma addirittura in contraddizione con quanto viene perseguito ad un’altra. Inoltre, non è detto che queste fenomenologie siano coerenti con la stessa categoria di policentrismo, e che questa debba essere ricondotta a qualcosa di più vasto, come allude il non meno vago principio (ma per lo meno è chiaro che di principio si tratta, e non di una situazione) della coesione territoriale (Faludi 2004).</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">In questo caso, il policentrismo evapora in un richiamo ad una politica di riequilibrio attenta alla densa specificità del dato territoriale. Ma si perderebbe per l’appunto l’ancoraggio analitico e sostantivo.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">Se si volesse mantenerlo, come sembrano ritenere in massima parte ricercatori e studiosi, si dovrebbe concludere che la categoria di policentrismo è progettuale, e come tale rinvia a contesti individuali e condizioni molto particolari. Nuove strutture policentriche potrebbero formarsi allora se le tendenze diffusive e conurbative in atto (il policentrismo analitico) fossero accompagnate da politiche infrastrutturali e di specializzazione funzionale, cioè da strategie metropolitane (che devono farsi carico di una determinata qualità del principio ‘policentrista’, non necessariamente di tutte).</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><em>Morfologie e integrazione territoriale</em></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">A seguito dell’assunzione del policentrismo a rango di spirito guida dello SSSE, un certo numero di studi si è volto a riconsiderarne le fortune e le vicende. Salvo a scoprire che certa radici della riflessione sul policentrismo sono sempre state vitali, e che questioni specifiche su forma e gerarchia dei sistemi urani si sono poste non appena storicamente è sorta la questione dello sviluppo delle città oltre alla forma storica monocentrica e delimitata (da mura).</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">Non sarebbe difficile –infatti- trovare ascendenze ‘dottrinarie’ importanti e legittime nella storia disciplinare dell’urbanistica. Sembra opportuno accennare brevemente a due possibili filoni: il primo che va ricondotto latamente allo sforzo di ‘pensare l’espansione’ della città storica nel farsi della prima industrializzazione; il secondo, indaga forme e processi di organizzazione del territorio una volta consumata la differenza tra città e campagna, e accolta interamente questa seconda nel modo di vita urbano.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">La prima tradizione ha un preciso orientamento formale e urbano. Il piano di New York o l’Ensanche di Barcellona anticipano in fin dei conti il problema, che verrà acquisendo spessore analitico con la Scuola di Chicago, che della struttura della città estrapola un modello che esalta le differenze evolutive delle sue parti; o dagli economisti urbani che -nel secondo dopoguerra- sottolineano la varietà delle attività nella città manifatturiera del XX secolo. Come è noto, un ritorno alla declinazione morfologica avviene con i Ciam che consolidano negli <em>urban cores </em>i modelli di disarticolazione organicista studiati fin dagli anni ’30; e, più tardi, da Lynch e altri, che ne esaltano l’aspetto evenemenziale e percettivo.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">La seconda tradizione privilegia un punto di vista regionale, non disegna l’aspetto formale, ma assegna più importanza alle relazioni tra le parti e in particolare agli aspetti dinamici. A scala regionale il policentrismo ha storiche ascendenze nel lavoro di Geddes, che coniò la parola conurbazione<sup> </sup>per descrivere l’area di crescita esterna alla metropoli, nonché socialmente ed economicamente da questa dipendente. Ma il cruciale aspetto della dinamica e della interdipendenza delle relazioni, e non del loro puro svincolarsi dal centro, diventa chiara più tardi, per esempio con l’esperienza di De Carlo sulla città regione milanese. La decentralizzazione delle attività -conseguenza del decrescente costo del suolo e del lavoro man mano che ci si allontana dai centri- è ben nota fin dagli anni Sessanta, e vede attivarsi i governi locali nelle politiche urbane. Nel frattempo, questa mole di suggerimenti culturali diversi tra loro si fa politica, con le <em>métropoles d’équilibre </em>pensate<em> </em>in Francia negli anni 60’ per contrastare la primazia di Parigi, ampiamente riprese in Italia nelle proiezioni territoriali di Progetto ’80. La presenza di politiche pubbliche a questa scala &#8211; attivate dagli stessi discorsi riconducibili al policentrismo- è un ulteriore elemento caratteristico di questa seconda riflessione.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">La ricerca delle radici disciplinari rischierebbe fatalmente di cadere in una disputa accademica incapace di far uso, in questa nobile sequenza di anticipatori, delle differenze di prospettiva e di approccio teorico. Forse quello che conta sottolineare –oltre al fatto che numerosi diversi tentativi si pongono in sequenza- sono due aspetti: la diversità dei materiali descrittivi, e le epoche di svolta. Altra cosa è infatti considerare: a) la forma <em>conurbativa,</em> modello della espansione nella prima industrializzazione; b) la forma <em>metropolitana,</em> modello di integrazione nella società del benessere del dopoguerra; c) la forma data dalla <span style="font-size: small"><span lang="it-IT"><em><span style="text-decoration: none">dispersione</span></em><span style="font-style: normal"><span style="text-decoration: none">,</span></span></span></span> che caratterizza invece il processo (decostruito) di riarticolazione su più dimensioni degli spazi nella tarda modernità.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">Per una volta, la ricerca nazionale non ha inseguito da lontano l’evolversi dei fenomeni. L’indagine sulle forme dell’urbanizzazione è stata intrapresa in Italia da programmi di ricerca diversi -e in parte concorrenti- negli ultimi venti anni, con una sequenza più volte ripercorsa, ma non ancora assestata. Alcune ricerche (pionieristica quella di Itaten, in Clementi, Dematteis e Palermo 1996; ripresa di recente da una ricerca della Società Italiana degli Urbanisti, coordinata da Clementi 2006; su tracce in qualche modo allineate, la comparazione internazionale esposta in Indovina <em>et al.</em>, 2005) hanno in comune il tentativo di concettualizzare le forme a partire dai modi del cambiamento (e non il contrario). Un ‘<em>territorio millefoglie</em>’ (Clementi, 2006), dove il problema della descrizione non è affrontare l’elemento unitario o la relazione, ma il gioco tra i due punti di vista nelle molteplici combinazioni territoriali.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">In sostanza, da questa rapidissima carrellata si scopre che la componente cruciale delle aree di ricerca alle quali è possibile ricondurre la nozione di policentrismo riposa –in modo implicito o ingenuo nelle prime formulazioni, progressivamente in modo più consapevole- su una qualche nozione di <em>interdipendenza</em> funzionale tra le parti, questione che sarà ripresa nei prossimi paragrafi.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">Resta aperta invece, e pertinente, la domanda di ricerca sulla ‘buona’ forma urbana alla luce degli sviluppi post metropolitani, della continua dispersione insediativa, delle varietà di combinazioni locali (Hall 2005; Indovina <em>et al.</em> 2005). In questo caso, il policentrismo alimenta una opportuna rivendicazione ad una maggior partecipazione alla definizione degli assetti, insomma, ad una correzione su base locale delle logiche strutturanti astratte.</p>
<h2 class="western">Rete urbana e regioni europee</h2>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">Alcuni studi analitici -di carattere prevalentemente geografico- hanno cercato di colmare il <em>gap</em> di contenuto tra definizioni rigorose, ma caduche, e usi sfuggenti ma fertili. Infatti, l’aspetto più analitico della ricerca sul policentrismo è stato sviluppato da sedi legate al <em>policy-making</em> comunitario, alla scala del continente e in ottica comparativa tra i diversi paesi europei. Val la pena ripercorrere questo percorso intellettuale più per il filo del ragionamento seguito, anche a prescindere dai risultati empirici.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">La <em>Conférence des regions periphériques maritimes</em> ha redatto uno Studio (per la parte italiana curato da G. Dematteis) sul modello tendenziale di un’Europa policentrica, indicando anche una possibile correzione ‘volontarista’ (Crpm 2002). In particolare, lo studio si sofferma sulla formazione di quei grandi spazi suscettibili di ospitare formazioni economiche competitive alla scala globale e alternative al centro esistente intorno alla regione delle ‘capitali’. Questo studio evidenzia tra l’altro la marginalità geografica dell’Italia rispetto alle attuali possibili zone di integrazione; anche nello scenario volontarista, le indicazioni di una potenziale GIZ nella pianura padana intorno a Milano rivolta al Pentagono; e di una seconda intorno a Roma e Napoli rivolta al Mediterraneo, resterebbero poco realiste (Dematteis <em>et al.</em> 2006).</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">L’aspetto dell’interdipendenza è ripreso dal successivo rapporto ESPON (Nordregio 2004) che insiste, più che sui caratteri morfologici, sul fatto che i centri componenti l’unità policentrica devono essere interrelati e cooperanti<em>. </em>In realtà, anche il rapporto Espon si limita ad un’analisi di figure territoriali della organizzazione urbana, pur con qualche tentativo di elaborare l’identificazione delle forme urbane locali (meno sulle relazioni tra aree a livello di continente). Lo studio ha due punti di partenza: l’Europa è composta da un vasto raggruppamento di centri urbani di media dimensione che non sono sovrastati da alcun ‘capitale europea’ a carattere dominante; l’eventuale struttura policentrica risulterebbe dalla sottile costruzione delle aree funzionali urbane riclassificate secondo funzioni e dimensioni come potenziali strutture urbane competitive.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">In particolare, vengono individuate delle <em>Functional urban areas </em>(FUA: aree funzionali urbane) mediante i parametri classici della dimensione, della connessione e della localizzazione geografica (<sup><a class="sdfootnoteanc" name="sdfootnote1anc" href="#sdfootnote1sym"><sup>1</sup></a></sup>). Questa riflessione dà però origine ad alcune considerazioni sulla struttura urbana del continente non prive di qualche interesse. Considerando le aree funzionali come “building blocks for the polycentric regions”, lo studio individua, nei 29 stati europei dell’area studio Espon (<sup><a class="sdfootnoteanc" name="sdfootnote2anc" href="#sdfootnote2sym"><sup>2</sup></a></sup>), 76 MEGA (Metropolitan European Growth Areas: aree di crescita metropolitana di particolare rilievo) tra cui compaiono tutte le capitali (tranne Nicosia, Cipro). Mentre due terzi dei paesi hanno una sola grande area metropolitana, i 6 paesi più popolosi hanno più di 3 MEGA ciascuno. Di nuovo, la concentrazione è evidente: ben 17 grandi aree metropolitane sono all’interno del Pentagono.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">Un altro dato utilizzato per analizzare le potenzialità policentriche riguarda la specializzazione funzionale, una dimensione importante per comprendere il grado di policentrismo, anche perché è la caratteristica che rende ogni città diversa dalle altre. La valutazione della specializzazione di ogni FUA consente di stimare i flussi di scambi necessari per l’integrazione economica e politica dell’area.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">Infine, le potenzialità di sviluppo policentrico (<sup><a class="sdfootnoteanc" name="sdfootnote3anc" href="#sdfootnote3sym"><sup>3</sup></a></sup>) sono espresse in seguito a considerazioni sulla prossimità morfologica  delle FUA. A questo scopo sono stati usati indicatori relativi a popolazione, trasporti, produzione manifatturiera, titoli di studio/diffusione della conoscenza e strutture decisionali. Il punto di partenza delle riflessione resta sempre l’esigenza di avere delle città-regioni fortemente competitive al di fuori del Pentagono. Per questo si individuano le FUA più “forti” che possano costituire the “<em>cornerstones of new global integration zones”. </em>In particolare, si individuano delle zone dove le FUA sono più vicine l’una con l’altra. Anche le MEGA sono differenziate in base a<em> </em>massa, competitività, connettività e diffusione della conoscenza (<sup><a class="sdfootnoteanc" name="sdfootnote4anc" href="#sdfootnote4sym"><sup>4</sup></a></sup>).</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">I dati relativi ai flussi e alle reciprocità fra aree funzionali, per determinare eventuali interconnessioni tra esse o interconnessioni potenziali, non sono semplici da reperire, e questo costituisce un limite rilevante. Nel rapporto vengono evidenziati soltanto degli esempi di co-operazione e networks, come forme di policentrismo istituzionale e strutturale a scala europea, a partire dagli scambi e gli accordi internazionali tra Università: mobilità Erasmus e dal traffico aereo europeo.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">Inoltre, il ragionamento consente di argomentare ulteriormente sulle dinamiche e sui punti critici (<sup><a class="sdfootnoteanc" name="sdfootnote5anc" href="#sdfootnote5sym"><sup>5</sup></a></sup>). Per esempio:</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">il ‘tasso’ di 	policentrismo –una valutazione non sempre traducibile in modo in 	equivoco in indici analitici- appare in diminuzione, soprattutto per 	l’estensione dell’area di influenza delle maggior aree 	metropolitane dovuta all’incremento di accessibilità (per 	le condizioni di trasporto su strada, ferrovia ecc.); da questo 	punto di vista, la diminuzione pare destinata a continuare, a meno 	di catastrofi sul lato costo del petrolio;</p>
</li>
<li>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">la definizione del 	Pentagono sembra troppo riduttiva, anche in puri termini geografici; 	la presenza di città importanti, ma esterne (Manchester, 	Berlino, Venezia, Genova, Parigi), suggerisce piuttosto un ambito 	più vasto e più significativo; anche la riflessione 	sui potenziali (per lo più demografici, ma legati anche agli 	spostamenti giornalieri) contrasta l’immagine iper concentrata del 	Pentagono, e favorisce l’dea di un urbano diluito su quasi tutto 	il territorio europeo (come appare anche nelle mappe riprese da MIIT 	2005c);</p>
</li>
<li>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">lo studio empirico 	delle relazioni tra il policentrismo e le performance economiche e 	ambientali dei paesi membri non dà risultati particolarmente 	significativi, come peraltro succede spesso con queste misure 	aggregate. Nonostante che il policentrismo risulti associato con 	quasi tutti i maggiori obiettivi politici della Ue, -la 	competitività economica, l’eguaglianza sociale, la 	sostenibilità ambientale- l’evidenza statistica –si è 	costretti a concludere- è debole;</p>
</li>
<li>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">nella costruzione 	analitica e geografica della nozione operativa di policentrismo 	gioca, con rilievo, la classificazione funzionale delle aree urbane. 	Come è noto, la costruzione di classifiche è una parte 	(non originale e non gratificante) del lavoro di indagine, sempre 	ampiamente criticabile nei suoi  presupposti. Il punto specifico in 	questo caso riguarda le funzioni connesse al ruolo di interfaccia 	tra territori e flussi globali, che sono solo parzialmente catturate 	dalla concentrazione demografica o di imprese e risultano in parte 	tributarie al rango dei centri;</p>
</li>
<li>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">da questo punto di 	vista, c’è un po’ di contraddizione tra la ricerca di 	potenziali aree di rango superiore attraverso le due strade 	dell’analisi dei trend demografici, da un lato; della presenza di 	funzioni rare, dall’altro. Infatti, i due termini tendono a 	coincidere nei piani alti della gerarchia urbana ed a divaricarsi in 	vario modo ai livelli inferiori, una tendenza non facilmente 	recuperabile.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">Al fondo di questa seconda direzione di ricerca, risiede la volontà di individuare dei potenziali competitivi, almeno parzialmente declinati secondo le specificità territoriali, che sostengano lo sviluppo del continente. Questi potenziali, identificati nelle città, conducono ad alcune scelte analitiche che, probabilmente per la limitatezza dei dati disponibili, tendono a concentrarsi su alcune caratteristiche di massa e demografia. I tentativi di individuare degli approcci analitici alla questione delle interdipendenze presentano, da questo punto di vista, risultati molto esili.</p>
<h2 class="western">Una nozione scalare</h2>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">L’idea di policentrismo riflette in fin dei conti un presupposto fondamentale: la nozione christalleriana che le città organizzino i territori in vista di confronti che avvengono su altre scale geografiche. In questa idea l’aspetto fondamentale è la corrispondenza gerarchica tra funzioni di coordinamento e territori, nella immagine simbolica della piramide dove una base (territorio ed economia) risponde ad un vertice (comando politico e di mercato).</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">Si può in definitiva proporre una riflessione sul modello logico del policentrismo, giocando sui tre elementi di base territoriale, vertice di comando e campo scalare di gioco. Molte delle politiche di cui ci troviamo a fare uso sono state sviluppate dentro a questi riferimenti. Questo è vero nelle tradizionali politiche allocative di riequilibrio territoriale, ma non è meno vero per politiche più diffuse, ma solo parzialmente diverse.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">Una delle definizioni oggi prevalenti di sviluppo regionale assegna infatti importanza al rafforzamento delle capacità localizzate, pur nella consapevolezza che le opportunità dipendono da attori diversi (imprese e località) che interagiscono in un sistema di regole dinamiche. La misura tradizionale della competitività di impresa –la produttività- è affiancata da altri fattori di contesto. Non solo la geografia non scompare come vincolo, ma i luoghi acquistano vieppiù importanza come dispositivi di individualizzazione. Torniamo alla vecchia idea di Geddes della pianificazione come strumento per coltivare la ‘<em>uniqueness</em>’ dei luoghi.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">In questo caso, nella metafora della piramide, è ribaltata l’idea di gerarchia: il vertice è visto come una funzione espressa dalla base, più che il contrario. Ma non si rompe la simmetria tra i due elementi che compongono l’immagine, simmetria messa in discussione dalla proiezione di razionalità diverse e concorrenti, di vertici diversi che proiettano immagini concorrenti del mondo. Coltivare le specificità, e trovare chi le apprezzi, sono infatti attività non coincidenti; e la globalizzazione accentua la dipendenza dagli scambi.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">Nei flussi dell’internazionalizzazione, l’univocità del rapporto tra territorio-economie e politica-mercato è messa in discussione. Come si vede, i piani di confusione di intrecciano: né il territorio è funzione delle economie, né la sua organizzazione è funzione della competizione di mercato. Gli spazi di gioco tra questi elementi sono alterati dal compenetrarsi delle scale geopolitiche. Anche per questo competizione e qualità (coesione sociale, sostenibilità…) non sono ‘automaticamente’ coerenti, né necessariamente in contraddizione. Rispetto alla diffusione di un modello standard di sviluppo, questa concezione autorizza la riflessione di percorsi plurali e personalizzati, e insiste sulle dimensioni progettate delle politiche di sviluppo locale. Ma non esaurisce tutte le questioni, in particolare quelle relative ai rischi di scegliere.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">Affermare l’importanza dei fattori di contesto non risolve il contrasto tra le forze in campo -nello spazio dei flussi e nello spazio dei luoghi- che restano incommensurabili. La fase di atterraggio dei flussi  nei luoghi è il momento cruciale in cui si capisce quale risorsa si combina in quale mix.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">In tutto ciò è riconoscibile un processo di riformulazione delle scale, o meglio, di trasformazione del modo in cui nel capitalismo maturo lo spazio viene conformato dal gioco degli interessi sulle coordinate geografiche e politiche (Brenner 2001). Le scale geografiche sono materiale di rilievo per il discorso che stiamo affrontando: in particolare, è già emerso come il tema del policentrismo acquisti significati diversi a seconda della scala alla quale è agito.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">Più in particolare, la riflessione sulle condizioni delle politiche del territorio afferma che l’azione pubblica si svolge <em>tra</em> le scale, nel gioco che queste lasciano in particolare nelle dinamiche geopolitiche (solo per citare un caso letterario: Ohmae 1995; Scott 1998).</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">In questo processo, sia il territorio che le politiche sono cambiate. Sia pur in modo schematico, va ricordato che sono cambiate sia la rappresentazione che la rappresentanza politica dei territori (Gelli 2005). Come pure è cambiata la scala geografica e politica dove le iniziative -una volta ‘locali’- sono agite. Questo richiederebbero un diverso sforzo di descrizione e concettualizzazione. Qualche progresso è stato però compiuto in questa direzione.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><em>Policentrismo e competitività</em></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">Connotare la forma della interdipendenza, il gioco tra diverse logiche di azione –individuali e collettive- è la posta in gioco della ricerca. In particolare, connotarla in modo non banalmente sistemico -come nelle aspettative del secondo dopoguerra- quando il territorio restava una proiezione delle relazioni funzionali di legami sociali e di logiche economiche esterne, e senza possibilità di reciproca influenza. Ma piuttosto connotare questa interdipendenza in modo pertinente rispetto ai sistemi di azione attivati in loco, e al tempo stesso, aperto alla interfacce con i processi di articolazione del capitalismo globale.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">E’ quindi un po’ paradossale che il ‘campione’ delle figure territoriali all’origine della riflessione sul policentrismo –la regione centrale delle capitali europee descritta nello SSSE, a volte schematizzata nella immagine del ‘pentagono’(Melhbye 2000)- ometta questa indicazione. La riflessione sulle forme delle interdipendenza è precisamente quello che manca nella fotografia della concentrazione di fattori (demografici, di ricchezza, di ricerca). Concentrazione che non presuppone necessariamente delle relazioni funzionali tra questi territori, che pur esisteranno laddove le economie sono integrate, ma non necessariamente in tutta la vasta area considerata e non sempre nello stesso modo. Anzi, la creazione e il rafforzamento delle interdipendenze è questione chiave della formazione di nuove forme territoriali, diverse dalle tradizionali città.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">Ma proprio le caratteristiche di <em>prossimità</em> e l’<em>interdipendenza</em> sono messe in questione (Amin e Thrift 2001) e non solo per problemi empirici, peraltro non facilmente superabili (la definizione di area in base agli spostamenti casa lavoro, per esempio, rispecchia un’immagine di società non precisamente attuale). Sulla prossimità si confrontano questioni teoriche e interpretative di non poco peso.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">Solo apparentemente, infatti, l’approccio ‘funzionalista’ -dominante nei documenti ufficiali, come lo SSSE &#8211; prevale anche nei fatti: una versione meno definita, e in fondo, più processuale, è presente in molti diversi ambiti.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">Nel primo modo di intenderlo, il policentrismo è inteso come una proprietà funzionale di un sistema di città, di una regione o di un continente, aggregati territoriali che possono quindi essere comparati con altre configurazioni spaziale alla stessa scala geografica o politica.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">Questa rappresentazione è funzionale a discorsi diversi a seconda delle scale: a livello locale, la nozione di policentrismo esplora configurazioni spaziali più sostenibili e meno gerarchici di quelli basate sulla concentrazione polarizzata; a livello complessivo, vorrebbe misurare capacità differenziali di performance economica dei territori. Quest’ultima aspirazione, come pure i paralleli giochi sulla competitività dei territori, sembrano però poco convincenti. Al contrario, la rappresentazione delle relazioni transcalari del territorio è un problema cruciale da affrontare. Gli aspetti che contraddistinguono una situazione territoriale, all’incrocio tra relazioni e luoghi, più che ad una scala geografica o un livello gerarchico funzionale. In questo caso, la nozione di policentrismo non appare né necessaria né risolutiva; forse trovano miglior impostazione i diversi problemi –sostenibilità urbana, crescita, coesione territoriale- che si davano un po’ frettolosamente risolti dalla prima felice formula policentrica.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">Questi problemi non sono certo sfuggiti ai ricercatori. Per esempio, la domanda forse più ‘densa’ riguarda la capacità delle reti di città intermedie di creare GIZ di successo (Hague e Kirk 2002). Questa questione (al centro di una recente ricerca comparativa: Hall e Pain 2006) affronta la questione, in particolare, se le città europee, oggi strutturate con varianti intorno al modello della città regione, siano in grado di creare sviluppo e compensare l’assetto monocentrico del continente. Altre domande, sollevate da diversi autori (vedi anche Hall 2005;<span style="font-size: x-small"> </span>Meijers<strong> <span>2005</span></strong>), riguardano il contributo che il policentrismo è in grado di offrire alla coesione, in particolare a quella territoriale, e alla sostenibilità.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">La prima maggiore questione riguarda però la domanda se le città siano il motore dello sviluppo e, di conseguenza, la configurazione territoriale delle aree locali nel contesto dei processi di globalizzazione. La sfida anche teorica è di pensare il locale in modo non disgiunto dal globale, sfidando di fatto la disarticolazione ipotizzata da chi vede il trionfo dello spazio dei flussi ai danni di quello dei luoghi.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">In questa direzione, un certo numero di studiosi ha evidenziato da tempo l’emergere di territori regionali sullo scenario mondiale. Questi territori si disarticolano dallo spazio nazione e, acquisendo qualche grado di autonomia e riconoscibilità, operano come “<em>piattaforme territoriali</em> per l’economia del post-Fordismo” (Scott 2001, <em>c.vo</em> mio): anzi, globalizzazione e città-regione sarebbero le due facce di uno stesso processo.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">Questa formula –le piattaforme territoriali- è evidentemente un punto di arrivo di una lunga riflessione sul confronto tra locale e globale, tra competitività e coesione, che ha occupato laboriosamente i due decenni precedenti. Anche in questo non è inutile un piccolo sforzo di ricostruzione delle incrostazioni di significato prese a riferimento, in particolare, dal riuso strategico di questa nozione avvenuto in un momento particolare di formazione delle politiche territoriali in Italia. Con questa idea, infatti, si affronta da un’altra prospettiva il problema della nuova natura delle interdipendenze al cuore anche della nozione di policentrismo. E d’altra parte, si cerca un ancoraggio sostantivo nella direzione opposta a quella che portava a sfumare nel più generale principio della coesione territoriale.</p>
<h2 class="western"><span lang="it-IT">Piattaforme e connessioni territoriali</span></h2>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">La piattaforma (termine che in informatica stava ad indicare uno standard di fatto che consentiva a imprese indipendenti di operare sviluppando componenti o software con comuni riferimenti) indica più in generale un dispositivo che funziona perché beni e servizi si interfacciano grazie ad essa. Anche in economia gestionale, l’idea più semplice di beni intermedi concepiti come piattaforme (per esempio, gli <em>chassis </em>comuni a vetture prodotte da case diverse) rimanda ad una nozione di interscambiabilità e di potenzialità derivanti da una sinergia, in questo caso progettata.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">Interi settori della società dell’informazione agiscono in realtà sulla interfaccia tra “mondi” differenti, anche senza particolare ricorso ad accordi preventivi: per esempio, le case discografiche sono orientate in modo non banale dalle scelte tecnologiche dei consumatori che influiscono sui sistemi di riproduzione (in una generazione sono trascorsi vinile, nastro, cd, ipod); la stessa tv commerciale italiana è stata, secondo l’interpretazione del suo fondatore, una ‘piattaforma’ di contatto tra venditori e acquirenti, senza per questo che vengano meno le implicazioni culturali. In tutte queste definizioni viene enfatizzato il significato di bene comune, incorporato da certi sistemi tecnici, organizzativi o produttivi quando sono adottati da una massa critica di utilizzatori.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">Nella versione ottimista della nuova economia globale, e in modo ancora più ampio, si può sostenere: “una piattaforma rappresenta uno standard di fatto, un parametro non decretato dal governo” (Ohmae 2001). Sono standard “fatti” così diversi come la lingua inglese, il dollaro, l’apertura dell’economia (<sup><a class="sdfootnoteanc" name="sdfootnote6anc" href="#sdfootnote6sym"><sup>6</sup></a></sup>); sono parte del “continente invisibile, un sistema emergente, un sistema che si plasma e fissa la propria rotta attimo per attimo” (<em>ivi</em>). Il carattere che viene sottolineato, comunque, è il tendenziale regime di oligopolio che la piattaforma tende a esercitare. Ma nella potenziale evoluzione delle piattaforme, l’aspetto più promettente è che creano ‘comunità’ tra gli individui che consumano beni, servizi e, sempre più spesso, esperienze ed emozioni (puri servizi, fortemente legati alla produzione delle identità).</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">Le due idee di comunità (di utilizzatori) e piattaforma (di interfaccia) si sposano quasi naturalmente con l’evoluzione della ricerca sui distretti italiani, in particolare con chi (AASTER 2001) ne ha sempre sottolineato gli aspetti di società, per l’appunto ‘intermedia’. Non si tratta di riflessione analiticamente e teoricamente ‘spesse’: si tratta piuttosto di suggestioni che riprendono con vivacità le forti assonanze di discorsi diversi intorno a un problema comune consistente. Da questo punto di vista, la nozione di piattaforma esprime tutta la carica di regolazione sociale, che siamo abituati ad associare alle forme organizzate di sapere localizzato; senza prescindere dalle connessioni a distanza tipiche delle reti lunghe della globalizzazione. Al tempo stesso, trova nella comunità un riferimento al radicamento delle forme di vita da una parte, ma anche al rischio delle derive localistiche e ai ripieghi nazional-identitari dall’altro.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">In questa prospettiva, si riformulano sia le caratteristiche economico-sociali delle formazioni storiche del territorio italiano, sia le nozioni più localistiche di cooperazione e competizione tipiche dei distretti. Si evidenzia la ristrutturazione delle connotazioni tradizionali del modello italiano e, insieme, le nuove relazioni trans-locali del capitalismo globale. Più recentemente, queste riflessioni approdano ad una formula più ambiziosa, l’idea che spazio dei flussi e dei luoghi si combinino in diversi modi dando vita a  nuove ‘comunità geopolitiche’ (Bonomi 2003). Queste ultime riformulano su base ideal tipica le fenomenologie territoriali riscontrate da tempo, in particolare nella terza Italia, individuando delle aggregazioni meso rispetto al localismo dei distretti e alle grandi formazioni economico-sociali; ma soprattutto delle aggregazioni orientate a particolari relazioni con i flussi di globalizzazione e altri particolari ‘luoghi’ e spazi. Queste associazioni a rete sono assunte sotto il termine di piattaforma, come aggregazioni per l’appunto <em>transcalari</em> di specificità territoriali e connessioni globali.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">Al di là delle specificità dei singoli contributi, non necessariamente omogenei, importa qui sottolineare la triplice radice di questa riflessione: il tentativo di coniugare l’originalità del modello italiano dei distretti e dei sistemi locali produttivi con le nuove logiche economico produttive; l’enfasi sugli aspetti della regolazione sociale accanto ai vincoli della competizione globale; l’importanza delle strutture territoriali intermedie capaci di quella flessibilità necessaria a modellarsi sui settori economici competitivi nelle nuove condizioni (né, dunque, quelle apicali nella gerarchia globale; né genericamente tutte le realtà locali in quanto tali).</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">Questa riflessione viene ad un certo punto ‘importata’ (evidentemente da critici non solo ben informati, ma capaci di tradurre l’elaborazione teorica più avanzate in formule operative) in alcuni documenti ufficiali di indirizzo della programmazione territoriale (MIITT 2004a). Questa famiglia di studi fa parte di un tentativo volto ad individuare “i sistemi territoriali ed urbani di immediato secondo livello rispetto all’armatura infrastrutturale di rango europeo” (<em>ivi</em>). Senza (comprensibilmente) avvertire la necessità di darne delle definizioni troppo stringenti, le ‘piattaforme’ diventano una delle figure territoriali (insieme ai <em>territori urbani di snodo</em>, e ai<em> fasci infrastrutturali di connessione</em>, oggetto di successive indagini<em>)</em> atte a dare un’immagina aggiornata rispetto, per esempio, alle non più attuali visioni di Progetto ’80, dell’Italia postmetropolitana.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">In questa aspirazione, le piattaforme servono a dare un criterio di priorità a connessioni territoriali ulteriori rispetto alle reti europei da un lato, e alle priorità locali (regionali) dall’altro. Per far questo, dovrebbero selezionare “<em>i processi di mutamento più significativi</em>”, per esempio di quei<em> </em>sistemi produttivi emergenti che hanno saputo ‘riconvertirsi ed accedere ai grandi circuiti internazionali …ma che hanno ancora bisogno di essere accompagnati da politiche pubbliche mirate ad accrescere l’accessibilità alle grandi reti e a potenziare la connettività tra locale e globale’ (MIITT 2005).</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">La ‘piattaforma territoriale’ è dunque una figura retorica che, alla stregua del policentrismo, e sia pur con minori ambizioni, ha tentato di porsi verso le politiche con lo stesso atteggiamento generativo. Non sarebbe comprensibile questa specifica avventura senza ricordare la peculiare asimmetria del regionalismo italiano, e in particolare il conflitto tra ministeri centrali, parzialmente espropriati delle proprie funzioni e competenze; e centri regionali in carica di politiche ancora relativamente in formazione. Non c’è dubbio che rappresenti un tentativo di re-introdurre –a mò di cavallo di Troia- delle misure normative e di controllo sull’operato delle regioni, almeno tanto quanto cerca di offrire delle opportunità ai territori intermedi.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">Ma al di là del gioco politico contingente, che giustifica l’introduzione del concetto ma non il suo sviluppo autonomo, l’idea di piattaforma territoriale gioca la carta retorica dell’ossimoro, associando il termine più immateriale elaborato nella recente ricerca economico-gestionale, con il referente spaziale più denso di riferimenti alla concreta materialità dei rapporti locali.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">Ma soprattutto, riprende l’intuizione dell’interfaccia tra mondi diversi, in particolare tra le diverse scale –locale, globale- dell’azione collettiva. In un certo senso, la nozione di piattaforma territoriale –sia nella versione più generale di Scott, che in quella più applicativa degli indirizzi nazionali- assume la compresenza di quei tre elementi già rapidamente ricordati: la tendenza ad acquisire un rapporto egemonico nell’interfaccia tra un gruppo di utilizzatori e il resto della economia-mondo, dove il territorio stesso viene elevato al rango di dispositivo di controllo oligopolistico; un forte senso di comunità, che fonda modi di agire comuni sulla condivisione di stili di vita e condizioni culturali; la presenza di istituzioni -anche innovative e in via di formazione- che consentono una regolazione sociale delle relazioni locali consapevole dell’incrocio tra reti lunghe e reti corte.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">Successive ricerche (Dematteis <em>et al.</em>, 2006) insistono sulla dimensione intermedia dei territori di snodo, in particolare tra le troppo vaste aspirazioni delle ricerche che cercano di definire le <em>Zone di integrazione funzionale</em> da un lato (per esempio, CRPM 2002), e le troppo dettagliate prescrizioni delle FUA (BBR 2005). In questa formulazione, viene introdotta un’idea di macro-regioni che agisce da cerniera tra le grandi politiche di assetto continentale e le aspirazioni dei territori locali. Sembrerebbe in questo caso –più che un’alternativa- una delimitazione più accurata su una dimensione geografica meno estesa, dal punto di vista territoriale; e più specifica, dal punto di vista delle relazioni.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">Ma al di là del punto di arrivo di queste ricerche, e del destino stesso del suggestivo ma equivoco termini di piattaforme, sembra di poter concludere che in questa riflessione si è iniziato a por mano ad un’interpretazione delle caratteristiche transcalari dei territori che risulta al tempo stesso cruciale e problematica. E che però consente di staccarsi da alcune ingenuità descrittive e normative del policentrismo aggredendo nodi e problemi di maggior interesse e specificità, in particolare per il nostro paese.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><em>Conclusioni</em></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">Alcuni esiti paradossali dell’eccessiva esposizione della nozione di policentrismo erano già stati evidenziati fin dai primi commenti a ridosso dello SSSE: “il policentrismo, invece di descrivere una realtà in essere o emergente, perviene a</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">determinare quella realtà”<em> </em>(Davoudi 2002). Inutile aggiungere che, se se ne volesse salvare a tutti i costi l’aspetto analitico e comparativo, si rischierebbe di renderlo banale e poco utile; mentre se si volesse applicare in modo fertile l’aspirazione normativa, si incontrerebbero una serie di problemi connessi alla varietà delle situazioni territoriali (Shaw e Sykes 2004), alle differenze dei modelli insediativi, al ruolo dei decisori e ai rapporti tra questi.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">Ma il problema principale è probabilmente l’indifferenza alle <em>scale </em>territoriali. Nelle versioni correnti, il policentrismo tende ad accreditare l’idea che i problemi locali e quelli del territorio dell’Unione possano essere affrontati in modo coerente e omologo a tutte le scale. Viceversa, il più volte celebrato ‘ritorno delle città’ allude a tutt’altri fenomeni, in particolare enfatizza una rinnovata centralità politica ed economica delle città proprio perché queste –come attori collettivi- operano <em>attraverso </em>le<em> </em>scale geografiche e i livelli di decisione.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">Comunque, tutte e due i modi di intendere il policentrismo –il localismo partecipato, il globale competitivo- condividono una rappresentazione dei fattori di scala che appare astratta e carente proprio in relazione alle integrazione tra flussi e territori.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">In definitiva, la forma dello spazio e degli effetti territoriali delle iniziative economiche –contrariamente all’ordine descrittivo del policentrismo- dipendono dalla multiscalarità della azione locale. Al contrario, definizioni monodimensionali –appunto come quella di policentrismo- rischiano di sottostimare l’effetto e l’importanza di fenomeni che operano su ambiti diversi.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">Vale la pena segnalare, invece, che ancora insufficiente attenzione è stata dedicata alle forti differenze nei modelli insediativi delle regioni italiane. Le città d’Italia, su cui si spende (sembra inevitabilmente) una retorica perfino fastidiosa, sono molto diverse tra di loro, e non tutte sono ‘città’ nello stesso modo (<sup><a class="sdfootnoteanc" name="sdfootnote7anc" href="#sdfootnote7sym"><sup>7</sup></a></sup>).</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">Ma non si può ignorare che le politiche urbane, e in certa misura il discorso del policentrismo, siano uno strumento di compensazione dei sistemi-paese per mitigare il divario tra capitale (Parigi ‘cuore’ della Francia; Londra motore finanziario d’Europa ecc.) e città intermedie. Se dovessimo adottare questo schema di politiche in Italia, incontreremmo una prima difficoltà perché non abbiamo <em>una</em> città univocamente motore di sviluppo nazionale; e una seconda, perché le città intermedie non sono province di prima industrializzazione, ma formazioni socio-economiche caratterizzate da un variegato complesso di fattori.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">Importare il riferimento al policentrismo in Italia –anche solo per confrontarsi sugli aspetti morfologici delle città- implica cioè delle specificazioni che rischiano di comprometterne quel nucleo analitico che sorregge la funzione comparativa; mentre trascura quegli aspetti più minuti legati alla sostenibilità della forma urbana su cui c’è ancora molto da indagare. D’altra parte, sembra altrettanto azzardato sostenere su queste basi le scelte territoriali necessarie per lo sviluppo competitivo nelle nuove condizioni dell’economia globale.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">Si avverte insomma una certa insoddisfazione per i risultati operativi raggiunti finora. A fronte delle aspettative e delle pretese appare un generale scetticismo per le possibilità operative, se non normative, del termine, al di là dell’utile -ma generico- richiamo alla sostenibilità delle forme urbane.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">Meglio allora insistere su quei tentativi, in corso ma ancora embrionali, di contrastare la rappresentazione monodimensionale della formazione dello spazio esplorando altre possibilità e altre nozioni, meno ideologiche, ma più rispondenti alla situazione di paesi come il nostro.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">
<p style="margin-left: 18pt;text-indent: -18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><span style="font-size: x-small">AASTER (2001), <em>Rapporto sui principali distretti industriali italiani redatto per Confartigianato, </em>Milano,<em> </em>28 giugno 2001.</span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 18pt;text-indent: -18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><span style="font-size: x-small"><span lang="en-GB">Amin A., Thrift N. </span>(2005), <em>Città ,Ripensare la dimensione urbana</em>, Mulino, Bologna (ed. or. 2001, <em>Cities, Reimaging the Urban</em>, Cambridge, Polity Press).</span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 18pt;text-indent: -18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><span style="font-size: x-small">BBR (Bundesamt für Bauwesen und Raumordnung) (2002), <em>Integrated tools for European Spatial Development</em>, ESPON project 3.1.</span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 18pt;text-indent: -18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><span style="font-size: x-small">BBR (Bundesamt für Bauwesen und Raumordnung) (2005), <em>Integrated Analysis of transnational and national territories based on ESPON results</em>, ESPON project 2.2.4.</span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 18pt;text-indent: -18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><span style="font-size: x-small">Belli A. 2004 , </span><span style="font-size: small"><span lang="it-IT"><em><span style="text-decoration: none"><span style="font-size: x-small">Come valore d’ombra</span></span></em></span></span><span style="font-size: x-small">, Angeli, Milano.</span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 18pt;text-indent: -18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><span style="font-size: x-small">Bonomi A. (2003), a cura di, <em>Per un credito locale e globale, Le geocomunità del capitalismo italiano</em>, Baldini Castoldi Dalai, Milano.</span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 18pt;text-indent: -18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><span lang="en-GB"><span style="font-size: x-small">Brenner N. (2001) “The limits to scale? Methodological reflections on scalar structuration”, <em>Progress in Human Geography,</em> 25,4, pp. 591–614.</span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 18pt;text-indent: -18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><span style="font-size: x-small">CCE (1999), <em>SSSE – Schema di sviluppo dello spazio europeo. Verso uno sviluppo territoriale equilibrato e sostenibile dell’Unione europea</em>, <em>approvato dal Consiglio informale dei ministri responsabili dell’assetto del territorio a Potsdam</em>, Lussemburgo, Comunità europee.</span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 18pt;text-indent: -18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><span style="font-size: x-small">Clementi A., a cura di, (2006) <em>L’armatura infrastrutturale e insediativa del territorio italiano al 2020, Principi, scenari, obiettivi</em>, <em>Rapporto intermedio della Società Italiana degli Urbanisti per il Ministero delle Infrastrutture e dei Trasporti</em>, Dicoter, Roma, 20 febbraio.</span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 18pt;text-indent: -18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><span style="font-size: x-small">Clementi A., Dematteis G., Palermo P. C. (1996), a cura di, <em>Le forme del territorio</em>, Laterza, Bari.</span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 18pt;text-indent: -18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><span style="font-size: x-small">Cremaschi M. (2002), “Studi urbani e sviluppo del territorio”, in <em>Archivio di studi urbani e regionali</em>, 75. </span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 18pt;text-indent: -18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><span style="font-size: x-small">Cremaschi M. (2005), <em>L’Europa delle città, Accessibilità, partnership e policentrismo nelle politiche comunitarie per il territorio</em>, Alinea, Firenze.</span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 18pt;text-indent: -18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><span style="font-size: x-small">Cremaschi M. (2006a), “Europeizzazione e innovazione nelle politiche del territorio”, in C. Donolo, a cura di, <em>Il futuro delle politiche pubbliche</em>, Eutropia Onlus, Angeli, Milano.</span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 18pt;text-indent: -18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><span style="font-size: x-small"><span lang="es-ES">Cremaschi, M. (2006b) “Integración  Territorial: la experiencia de la Unión Europea”, <em>International</em> <em>Forum on the Social Science, Policy Nexus (IFSP</em>), Unesco-Programma Most, </span><span lang="es-UY">20-24 February 2006, Montevideo.</span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 18pt;text-indent: -18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><span style="font-size: x-small">Cremaschi M. (2006c), &#8216;Le politiche urbane&#8217;, in Marco Cremaschi (ed.) (2006), </span><em><span style="font-size: x-small">Politiche economiche e per la competitività di città e di reti urbane nella futura programmazione comunitaria in Regioni Ob2, </span></em><span style="font-size: x-small">Iris, Istituto ricerche interventi sociale, rapporto di ricerca per il Ministero dell&#8217;Economia e Finanza, Dipartimento per le politiche di sviluppo, Roma.</span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 18pt;text-indent: -18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><span style="font-size: x-small">Crouch C., Le Galès P., Trigilia C., Voelzkow<strong> </strong>H. (2004), a cura di,  (2004) <em>I sistemi di produzione locale in Europa</em>, Il Mulino, Bologna (ed. or. <span lang="en-GB"><em>Changing Governance of Local Economies Responses of European Local Production Systems</em>, Oxford UP).</span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 18pt;text-indent: -18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><span lang="en-GB"><span style="font-size: x-small">CRPM – Conférence des regions periphériques maritimes, (2002), a cura di, <em>Study on the contruction of a polycentric and balanced development model for the European territory</em>, Rainho &amp; Neves, Santa Maria da Feira.</span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 18pt;text-indent: -18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><span lang="en-GB"><span style="font-size: x-small">Davoudi S. (2002), &#8216;Polycentricity: modelling or determining reality?&#8217; <em>Town and Country Planning</em>, April 2002, pp. 114-117.</span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 18pt;text-indent: -18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><span lang="en-GB"><span style="font-size: x-small">Davoudi S. (2003), “Polycentricity in European Spatial Planning: From an analytical tool to a normative agenda”, <em>European Planning Studies</em>, 11-8, 979-999.</span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 18pt;text-indent: -18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><span style="font-size: x-small">Dematteis, G., con C. Rossignolo, M. Santangelo, A. Toldo (2006) “Il territorio italiano alla scala del policentrismo europeo”, in A. Clementi, a cura di, Società Italiana degli Urbanisti, <em>L’armatura infrastrutturale e insediativa del territorio italiano al 2020, Principi, scenari, obiettivi</em>, Rapporto intermedio, per il Ministero delle Infrastrutture e dei Trasporti, Dicoter, 20 febbraio 2006.</span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 18pt;text-indent: -18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><span lang="en-GB"><span style="font-size: x-small">ESPON (2004), <em>Spatial development of an Enlarging European Union,</em> Brussel</span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 18pt;text-indent: -18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><span lang="en-GB"><span style="font-size: x-small">Faludi A. (2004), “Territorial Cohesion: A Polycentric Process for a Polycentric Europe”, <em>Aesop Congress</em>, 1-4 july, Grenoble. </span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 18pt;text-indent: -18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><span style="font-size: x-small"><span lang="en-GB">Faludi A., Waterhout B. (2002), <em>The Making of the European Spatial Development Perspective. </em></span><em>No Masterplan</em>, London &#8211; New York, Routledge.</span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 18pt;text-indent: -18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><span style="font-size: x-small">Gelli F. (2005), “Uno spaccato su logiche e pratiche di rappresentanza degli interessi territoriali nell’Ue, nell’intreccio di politica e politiche”, <em>Convegno annuale SISP, Cagliari 21-23 settembre 2005</em>.</span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 18pt;text-indent: -18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><span lang="en-GB"><span style="font-size: x-small">Governa F., Salone C. (2005), “Italy and European spatial policies: polycentrism, urban networks and local innovation practices”, <em>European Planning Studies</em>, 13, 2, March, 265- 283.</span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 18pt;text-indent: -18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><span lang="en-GB"><span style="font-size: x-small">Hague C., Kirk K. (2002) <em>Polycentricity scoping study, draft report</em>, School of the Built Environment, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh.</span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 18pt;text-indent: -18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><span lang="en-GB"><span style="font-size: x-small">Hall P. (2001), “Urban Development and Research Needs in Europe”, <em>Cerum Report,</em> n. 8.</span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 18pt;text-indent: -18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><span lang="en-GB"><span style="font-size: x-small">Hall P. (2005), “The World’s Urban Systems: a European Perspective”, <em>Global Urban Development,</em> 1, 1 (originariamente, report 2003 per Espon).</span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 18pt;text-indent: -18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><span lang="en-GB"><span style="font-size: x-small">Hall P., Pain K. (2006)<em> The Polycentric Metropolis: Learning From Mega-City Regions In Europe,</em> Earthscan, London.</span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 18pt;text-indent: -18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><span style="font-size: x-small">Indovina F., Fregolent L., Savino M. (2005), a cura di, <em>L’esplosione della città</em>, Compositori, Bologna.</span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 18pt;text-indent: -18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><span lang="en-GB"><span style="font-size: x-small"><span style="font-family: AdvPS6F00,serif">Janin Rivolin, U. (2004) </span><span style="font-family: AdvPS6F0B,serif"><em>European Spatial Planning</em>, </span><span style="font-family: AdvPS6F00,serif">Milano, Angeli.</span></span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 18pt;text-indent: -18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><span lang="en-GB"><span style="font-size: x-small">Kloosterman R. C., Musterd S. (2001), “The Polycentric Urban Region: Towards a Research Agenda”, <em>Urban Studies</em>, 38, 4 , April 1.</span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 18pt;text-indent: -18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><span lang="de-DE"><span style="font-size: x-small">Mehlbye, Peter (2000), “Global Integration Zones – Neighbouring Metropolitan Regions in Metropolitan Clusters”, in<em> Informationen zur Raumentwicklung</em>, Heft 11/12. </span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 18pt;text-indent: -18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><span lang="en"><span style="font-size: x-small">Meijers</span></span><strong><span lang="en"><span style="font-size: x-small"> <span>E. (2005) “</span></span></span><a href="http://www.ingentaconnect.com/search/article;jsessionid=qi611nr22xjh.henrietta?title=Polycentric+Urban+Region&amp;title_type=tka&amp;year_from=1998&amp;year_to=2005&amp;database=1&amp;pageSize=20&amp;index=2"><span><span lang="en"><span style="font-size: x-small">Polycentric urban regions and the quest for synergy: is a network of cities more than the sum of the parts?</span></span></span></a><span lang="en"><span style="font-size: x-small"><span>”</span> </span></span></strong><a href="http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/routledg/curs;jsessionid=qi611nr22xjh.henrietta"><em><span lang="en"><span style="font-size: x-small">Urban Studies</span></span></em></a><span lang="en"><span style="font-size: x-small">, 42,  4, April, pp. 765-781.</span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 18pt;text-indent: -18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><span style="font-size: x-small">Migliaccio A. (2004), “Oltre la sostenibilità”, in Belli A. (2004).</span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 18pt;text-indent: -18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><span style="font-size: x-small">Ministero delle Infrastrutture e dei Trasporti Dicoter  (2004a), <em>S.I.S.TE.M.A., Progetto Esecutivo, All. a, Definizione degli obiettivi strategici e delle azioni attuative,</em> (Luglio <span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold,serif">2004), </span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,serif">a cura di Ecosfera, Roma.</span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 18pt;text-indent: -18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><span style="font-size: x-small">Ministero delle Infrastrutture e dei Trasporti Dicoter  (2004b), </span><span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif"><span style="font-size: small"><span lang="it-IT"><em><span style="font-size: x-small"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,serif">Rapporto di sintesi per la Conferenza  Informale dei Ministri sulla Coesione Territoriale e le Politiche Urbane</span></span></em></span></span></span><span style="font-size: x-small">, Rotterdam,  24 novembre 2004</span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 18pt;text-indent: -18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><span style="font-size: x-small">MIITT (Ministero delle Infrastrutture e dei Trasporti), Dicoter  (2005a),</span><strong><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif"> </span></strong><span style="font-size: x-small"><em>Quadro strategico nazionale per la politica di coesione 2007-2013: un apporto del MIITT – Dicoter alla costruzione di una prospettiva territoriale</em>, Roma, (26.04.2005)</span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 18pt;text-indent: -18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><span style="font-size: x-small">MIITT (Ministero delle Infrastrutture e dei Trasporti), Dicoter  (2005b), <em>Verso il disegno strategico nazionale, II rapporto</em>, Roma.</span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 18pt;text-indent: -18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><span style="font-size: x-small">MIITT (Ministero delle Infrastrutture e dei Trasporti), Dicoter  (2005c), <em>Atlante tematico Espon</em>, de Agostini, Novara.</span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 18pt;text-indent: -18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><span lang="en-GB"><span style="font-size: x-small">Ministers for Spatial Development and the European Commission (2005), “Scoping Document and Summary of Political Messages for an Assessment of the Territorial State and Perspectives <span style="color: #000000">of the European Union, Towards a Stronger European Territorial Cohesion in the Light of the Lisbon and Gothenburg Ambitions”,<em> Informal Ministerial Meeting on Regional Policy and Territorial Cohesion</em>, Luxembourg, 20-21 May 2005 </span></span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 18pt;text-indent: -18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><span lang="en-GB"><span style="font-size: x-small">Nordregio (2004), <em>Potentials for polycentric development in Europe</em>, Stoccolma. </span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 18pt;text-indent: -18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><span style="font-size: x-small">Ohmae K. (1995),  <em>La fine dello stato nazione. <span lang="en-GB">L’emergere delle economie regionali</span></em><span lang="en-GB">, Baldini Castoldi, Milano, (ed. or., 1995, <em>The end of the nation state</em>, The Free Press, New York).</span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 18pt;text-indent: -18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><span style="font-size: x-small">Ohmae K. (2001), <em>Il continente invisibile, Oltre la fine degli stati-nazione: quattro imperatvi strategici nell’era della Rete e della globalizzazione</em>, Fazi, Roma.</span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 18pt;text-indent: -18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><span style="font-size: x-small">Pagliettini G. (2005), “Lo schema di sviluppo europeo”, in Cremaschi <em>op. cit</em>.</span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 18pt;text-indent: -18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif"><span style="font-size: x-small"><span lang="en-GB"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,serif"><span style="color: #000000">Salone C. (2005), “</span></span></span></span></span><span lang="en-GB"><span style="font-size: x-small"><span style="color: #000000">Polycentricity in Italian Policies”, in<strong> </strong></span><em>Built Environment</em>, Volume: 31, 2.</span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 18pt;text-indent: -18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><span lang="en-GB"><span style="font-size: x-small">Shaw D., Sykes O. (2004) “The concept of polycentricity in European spatial planning: reflections on its interpretation and application in the practice of spatial planning”, <em>International Planning Studies</em>, 9, 4, Nov., 283 – 306.</span></span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt"><span lang="en-GB"><span style="font-size: x-small">Scott A. J. (2001), a cura di,  <em>Global City-Regions, Trends, Theory, Policy</em>, Oxford UP, Oxford.</span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 18pt;text-indent: -18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><span style="font-size: x-small">Scott A. J. (2001), <em>Le regioni nell’economia mondiale. Produzione, competizione e politica nell’era della globalizzazione</em>, Il Mulino, Bologna (ed. or. <em>Regions and the World Economy</em>, Oxford UP, 1998).</span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 18pt;text-indent: -18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif"><span style="font-size: x-small"><span lang="en-GB"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,serif">Waterhout B., Zonneveld W., Meijers E. (2005) “</span></span></span></span><span lang="en-GB"><span style="font-size: x-small">Polycentric Development Policies in Europe: Overview and Debate”, <em>Built Environment</em>, Volume: 31, 2 (Special Title: Polycentric Development Policies in European Countries), June 2005.</span></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 18pt;text-indent: -18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify"><span style="font-size: x-small">Waterhout, B. (2002) “Polycentric Development: What’s behind it?” in: A. Faludi, <span lang="en-GB"><em>Spatial Planning: Lessons for America</em>, Cambridge (MA): Lincoln Institute.</span></span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" lang="en-GB" align="justify">
<div id="sdfootnote1">
<p class="sdfootnote"><a class="sdfootnotesym" name="sdfootnote1sym" href="#sdfootnote1anc">1</a><span style="font-family: FoundryJournal-Book"> </span>Le Fua sono agglomerazioni tra centri di almeno 20 mila 	abitanti e le aree urbane adiacenti, frutto di diverse definizioni 	statistiche tra i paesi membri. Nei 29 paesi oggetto di Espon sono 	presenti 1.595 Fua.</p>
</div>
<div id="sdfootnote2">
<p class="sdfootnote"><a class="sdfootnotesym" name="sdfootnote2sym" href="#sdfootnote2anc">2</a> Oltre i 25 membri della EU, l’Osservatorio Espon comprende anche 	Bulgaria, Romania, Norvegia e Svizzera</p>
</div>
<div id="sdfootnote3">
<p class="sdfootnote" align="justify"><a class="sdfootnotesym" name="sdfootnote3sym" href="#sdfootnote3anc">3</a> Come è noto, le zone di integrazione globale, ricordate anche 	dallo SSSE, incernierano sull’idea policentrica un disegno di 	diversificazione economica. Ne sono naturali candidati il ramo 	settentrionale (Amburgo, Øresund, Göthenburg, Stoccolma, 	Oslo) in continuità con il Pentagono e sostenuto da alcune 	delle linee di forza del sistema europeo dei trasporti. Altre 	eventuali zone riposano, nelle aspettative, sull’asse Lisbona, 	Madrid, Barcellona, Montpellier, strutturato dal TGV e dalla 	presenza di importanti industrie ad alta tecnologia; in parte, la 	zona orientale tra Vienna, Bratislava, Praga, Dresda e Berlino, 	sull’onda dei flussi generati dalla riunificazione con l’Est. 	Strutture policentriche in formazione all’esterno del Pentagono al 	di fuori, le regioni urbane policentriche sono poche: Ostrava, 	Venezia-Padova. Al di fuori del <em>core</em> europeo, le aree 	italiane potenzialmente policentriche sono Napoli e Salerno; Genova 	La Spezia, Pisa, Firenze, Livorno; Torino; Bologna Parma, Modena; 	Udine, Trieste; Verona.</p>
</div>
<div id="sdfootnote4">
<p class="sdfootnote" align="justify"><a class="sdfootnotesym" name="sdfootnote4sym" href="#sdfootnote4anc">4</a><span style="font-size: x-small"> </span>Le <em>potenzialità</em> policentriche sono ancora 	esplorate studiando le <em>isocrone</em> di trasporto intorno alle 	aree urbane precedentemente definite e prendendo in considerazione 	come riserva  di espansione le porzioni di municipalità 	limitrofe che non distano più di 45 minuti di automobile 	dalla FUA più vicina. Nuove circoscrizioni sono studiate 	intorno alle aree urbane considerando i comuni compresi entro una 	isocrona di 45 minuti di percorso in auto (<em>PUSH, Potential Urban 	Strategic Horizon). </em>Quando più aree contigue sono 	parzialmente sovrapposte definiscono delle aree urbane 	potenzialmente policentriche (<em>PIA,Potential Polycentric 	Integration Area)</em>.</p>
</div>
<div id="sdfootnote5">
<p class="sdfootnote"><a class="sdfootnotesym" name="sdfootnote5sym" href="#sdfootnote5anc">5</a> L’occasione di queste riflessioni è scaturita dalla 	partecipazione dell’autore ad una ricerca Espon (cfr. BBR 2005), 	nell’ambito di un team presso il BIC-Lazio di Roma, composto da M. 	Giacobbi, G. Pineschi e R. Labruna.</p>
</div>
<div id="sdfootnote6">
<p class="sdfootnote"><a class="sdfootnotesym" name="sdfootnote6sym" href="#sdfootnote6anc">6</a> Singolarmente, si può osservare sono oggetto di potenziale 	sfide da parte di altre ‘piattaforme’ (lo spagnolo o il cinese, 	l’euro, le liberalizzazioni sostenute politicamente in certi stati 	o città-stato) eventualmente sostenute da interessi o 	nazioni.</p>
</div>
<div id="sdfootnote7">
<p class="sdfootnote"><a class="sdfootnotesym" name="sdfootnote7sym" href="#sdfootnote7anc">7</a> Un solo esempio: per ottenere l’equivalente del peso delle 	capitali europee, dobbiamo sommare l’intera regione urbana di 	Roma, Milano e Napoli. Ma soprattutto, le singole aggregazioni 	metropolitane possiedono caratteristiche morfologiche e profili 	produttivi decisamente diversi, e instaurano rapporti territoriali e 	politici non comparabili con le autorità regionali. Si pensi 	alla megalopoli intorno a Milano, alla conurbazione di Napoli, alla 	metropoli centripeta di Roma e Torino, al sistema emiliano o 	toscano, o alla città diffusa veneta, e ai rapporti con le 	rispettive regioni (Cremaschi 2006c).</p>
</div>
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		<title>Sortie du blocage: nouvelles stratégies locales pour Rome</title>
		<link>http://cremaschi.dipsu.it/partnerships-strategie-e-governance-del-territorio/sortie-du-blocage-nouvelles-strategies-locales-pour-rome/</link>
		<comments>http://cremaschi.dipsu.it/partnerships-strategie-e-governance-del-territorio/sortie-du-blocage-nouvelles-strategies-locales-pour-rome/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Fri, 16 Oct 2009 15:42:22 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>editore</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[En français]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Partnerships, strategie e governance del territorio]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Pubblico privato]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Roma]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Strategie]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://cremaschi.dipsu.it/?p=191</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[<p>Ce papier utilise les principes de blocage et souplesse pour l&#8217;analyse de politiques urbaines, et les verifie pour le cas de Rome; en particulier, on cherche à expliquer le blocage comme un système de filtre des opérations urbaines dans une conjoncture politique particulière. Les innovations auxquelles on assiste aujourd&#8217;hui essayent d&#8217;obtenir une plus grande flexibilité [...]]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Ce papier utilise les principes de blocage et souplesse pour l&#8217;analyse de politiques urbaines, et les verifie pour le cas de Rome; en particulier, on cherche à expliquer le blocage comme un système de filtre des opérations urbaines dans une conjoncture politique particulière. Les innovations auxquelles on assiste aujourd&#8217;hui essayent d&#8217;obtenir une plus grande flexibilité et de meilleurs résultats en faisant recours à une notion stratégique de plan.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">À ce propos, il est curieux que la législation de l&#8217;état enregistre un profond retard en ce qui concerne l&#8217;aspect technique, urbanistique et le droit foncier. En conséquence, de nouveaux instruments et des procédures innovatrices sont expérimentées localement, avec un intéressant processus qui ressemble à une espèce d&#8217;&#8221;auto-réforme locale&#8221; de l&#8217;action publique en urbanisme.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Pour conclure, on peut formuler l&#8217;hypothèse qu&#8217;un transfert de responsabilités du contexte national au contexte local est en cours, transfert dans lequel on peut entrevoir certaines intéressantes innovations dans les combinaisons d&#8217;état, marché, politique et technique. Il est encore trop tôt pour dire si ce mélange peut se révéler heureux ou singulier. Mais il serait inutile de supposer dans les politiques urbaines locales cette idée d&#8217;unité qui est excessive en ce qui concerne la méthode scientifique. Si on s&#8217;inspire de la formule de Georges Balandier &#8220;le mouvement, plus l&#8217;incertitude&#8221; pour qualifier le désordre, on peut considérer le cas de Rome d&#8217;une façon plus générale, comme une <em>figure de la transition</em> en cours vers de nouvelles politiques urbaines.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt"><em>Trois étapes de la planification urbaine </em>(<sup><span style="font-size: xx-small"><a class="sdfootnoteanc" name="sdfootnote2anc" href="#sdfootnote2sym"><sup>1</sup></a></span></sup>)</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">La loi urbanistique fondamental de 1942 a caractherisé le plan, instrument principal de l&#8217;action urbanistique, avec deux adjectives forts, qui le qualifient de manière apodictique: le plan est &#8220;regolatore&#8221; (&#8221;réglementateur&#8221;) et &#8220;generale&#8221; (général), c&#8217;est le gouvernail et aussi bien la carte de tout processus de transformation du territoire. L&#8217;execution du plan général demande la redaction des piani attuativi (plans executives) par portions homogènes du territoire. En réalité, pendant la periode de validité du plan (qui le plus souvent est indeterminée), on peut rediger des varianti (variantes) qui modifient l&#8217;instrument général soi sous tous les rapports (variant général), soit sous un seul rapport (variant pour les espaces verts, ou pour les services), soit encore relativement a un espace localisé (variant pour modifier certaines destinations determinées). Pour ce qui en concerne l&#8217;approbation, les variantes et le plan suivent le même chemin administrative.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">L&#8217;aménagement du territoire et l&#8217;urbanisme font partie en Italie des compétences privilégiées des organes périphériques de l&#8217;État, et notamment des environ 8.000 communes. Dès 1977, avec la réforme de l&#8217;administration qui a institué les régions, la fonction urbanistique a été essentiellement divisée a 50% entre les régions e les communes (Merloni et. al. 1982)</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Chaque municipalité se donne un &#8220;piano regolatore&#8221; qu&#8217;identifie les reseaux des infrastructures, les travaux publics prioritairs, les terrains à batir, les zones à proteger et les fonctions et l&#8217;intensité d&#8217;utilisation de chaque partie du territoire; et indique les zones pour lesquelles la concession des permis à batir est subordonné a des certains limites ou à des procedures spéciales (comme, par exemple, les quartiers anciens du centre des villes). Il n&#8217;est que récentement, par la nouvelle loi fondamental sur les organes périphériques de l&#8217;État (loi 142/90) qu&#8217;on a introduit un rôle de coordination pour les provinces (niveau institutionel à peu près equivalent aux départements) et pour les nouvelles &#8220;aree metropolitane&#8221;, encore à réaliser. Étant donnée la faible présence de tout aménagement de quelque importance soit à niveau national (à part les grands travaux d&#8217;équipements, tels que les lignes des chemins de fer à grand vitesse) ou régional (des plans régionaux sont à l&#8217;étude depuis peu d&#8217;années), on peut dire que la plus grand partie des décisions publics concernant le territoire et le marché fonçière est prise par les communes.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">L&#8217;hipothèse qu&#8217;il puisse y avoir des différents <em>modèles </em>du plan d&#8217;urbanisme et succession de modèles et cultures différentes n&#8217;est plus aujourd&#8217;hui une source de difficultés. Dans ce processus, plusieurs diménsions s&#8217;entrecroisent: la transformation des structures du territoire, des disciplines, des cultures professionelles, des formes de la décision.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Pendant le passage dès années &#8216;50 aux &#8216;60 se produit la première &#8220;rupture&#8221; dans les formes d&#8217;organisation territoriale de la societé italienne, du aux ingents transformations territoriales amorcées par le processus de modèrnisation, avec l&#8217;industrialisation du Nord et l&#8217;émigration massive en diréction des villes. Vu d&#8217;aujourd&#8217;hui, le plan de ce pèriode semble être caractèrisé, pour suivre la formulation de Secchi, par une spéciale autonomie &#8220;éthico-déductive&#8221;: il s&#8217;agit d&#8217;un processus de séléction des altérnatives, que l&#8217;expert-urbaniste exerce par la valutation &#8220;optimal&#8221; et le &#8220;calcul&#8221; des conséquences. Le plan trouve sa légittimité dans les principes universales (beauté, justice, efficacité, verité) que l&#8217;urbanisme modèrne a tiré de la tradition &#8220;illuministe&#8221; de la societé et du gouvernement.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Avec les années &#8216;60, commencent cértaines difficultés. Les raisons en sont nombreuses: entre elles, la faiblesse de la culture &#8220;phisiciste&#8221; du plan, et la concurrence d&#8217;autres disciplines sociales plus forts et plus favorisé par les exchanges internationales. Synthètiquement, l&#8217;urbanisme cherche dans les années &#8216;60 de se qualifier comme une des procedures rationelles au service du gouvernement social. Le modèle du plan, aussi bien par l&#8217;influence du planning américain et de la culture rational-comprehensive de sciènces régionales tend à s&#8217;aplatir sur le processus décisional, avec toute l&#8217;ambiguité que donne le rencontre (où naiveté et optimisme ne manquent guère) entre politique et rationalité technique. Le &#8220;plan-processus&#8221; comme on l&#8217;appelle à l&#8217;époque, ne peut pas être concu comme un simple artifact particulier, mais est articulé en plusieurs phases, d&#8217;analyse, de projet et d&#8217;actuation, reglés, dans les intentions, par une sequence logique systèmique. Le résultats sont evidentement très différenciés, en raison du contexte. Dans la Milan réformiste des années &#8216;60, l&#8217;organisation du processus décisionel politicise le plan, et politicise aussi les structures techniques des communes, avec de résultats disputés mais certainement intéressants dans le domaine de l&#8217;urbanisme.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Ailleurs, à Rome par exemple et dans une grand partie du Sud, l&#8217;urbanisme formel serà plutôt substitué par la logique politique: les mouvements des squatters, par exemple, obtiennent de la région d&#8217;abord, et de l&#8217;État successivement, la légittimation de leurs réalisations hors plan; la réalisation des grands travaux troverà sa place, dans une période encore successive, avec des dispositions spéciales (Cremaschi 1991). C&#8217;est dans cette période que vient en evidence la faiblesse de la structure administrative: l&#8217;État céntral, avec la constitution des régions, se trouve par dégrés émarginé des problématiques urbanistiques; l&#8217;opérativité des régions rétarde; les techniciens des administrations locales se révélent peu homogènes, par leur culture professionnelles et oriéntation politique, à l&#8217;action des nouvelles administrations municipales (dans la période le nombre des villes gerés par la gauche croît sans arrêt).</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Dès le années &#8216;80 s&#8217;opère le dernier changement, avec l&#8217;affirmation général (non sans argument et discussion) d&#8217;une dimension négocial de la décision d&#8217;urbanisme; le rôle de promoteur (et non seulement de controleur) du sujet publique en résulte légittimé vis-à-vis des sujets privés qui proposent souvent des actions concerté d&#8217;aménagement. Dans ce processus, les administrations locales se concentrent sur les projets particuliers plutôt que sur les plans, sur le caractère strategique de chaque action particulière de la main publique plutôt que sur l&#8217;aspect prévisionel et la cohérence du plan. On peut dire qu&#8217;en cette phase l&#8217;urbanisme accroît son rôle <em>cognitive</em>: pour utiliser une methaphore tiré de la languistique, il gagne des fonctions performatives en outre à celle de narration.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Dans deux interventions tipiques de ces années, les grand travaux et les friches industrielles, on reconnait un procédé emblematique: le <em>projet urbain </em>délimite des espaces, les identifie et les nomme, les catégorise et lance des confrontations, invoque des connexions par analogie ou par imitation, etc. Le changement d&#8217;echelle a encore une autre consequence: le rôle du concepteur trébuche au déla de la figure de l&#8217;urbaniste. Pour autant que le sujet publique se configure comme manager, pour autant devient ouvert la dinamique de la conception.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Autour des nœuds du projet urbain souvent se réalisent des &#8220;coalitions de projet&#8221;, qui font rentrer des strategies promotionnelles entre les proposition d&#8217;aménagement pour la ville ou pour une zone. Si la culture du projet urbain est par définition pluraliste, la légitimation du concepteur n&#8217;utiliserà forcement la confrontation culturelle, mais fera recours aux nombreuses réthoriques du projet: du récit urbanistique à la culture du <em>project management</em>; de la force des arguments de la finance, au marketing du consensus.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt"><em>En quête de la flexibilité</em></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">En Italie, l&#8217;urbanisme est surtout une affaire locale, au même das les limites des lois d&#8217;orientation nationale et régionale. On se trompe peu en affirmant que le niveau &#8220;supracomunal&#8221; conditionne faiblement les choix du niveau comunal. En principe, l&#8217;aménagement municipal est hiérarchique et à tout azimut. En réalité, la pratique de l&#8217;aménagement &#8211; en raison, entre autres, du lourd mécanisme d&#8217;approbation &#8211; s&#8217;est éloignée par degrés de sa matrice d&#8217;origine.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Ayant étudié les procédures pour l&#8217;approbation d&#8217;un prg (&#8221;piano regolatore generale&#8221;) Martinotti rt Vicari (1994) donnent une idée des problèmes administratifs. Le temps minimum entre l&#8217;envoi du dossier et l&#8217;approbation du plan est de deux ans, alors qu&#8217;en moyenne on arrive presque à huit ans. En général, selon la même recherche, les prg sont plutôt vieux (le prg moyen a 12 ans d&#8217;âge; mais pour plus de la moitié des communes de l&#8217;échantillon, l&#8217;âge est plus avancé). Il est certain qu&#8217;en absence de plans, ou avec des plans et projets veillis, l&#8217;incertitude en matière d&#8217;urbanisme augmente, et ajoute à l&#8217;incertitude de l&#8217;économie.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">D&#8217;une autre part, l&#8217;espérance de vie des administrations locales (avant la réforme électorale de 1993) était de moins de deux ans, seulement un quart du temps nécessaire en moyenne pour conclure le cheminement pour l&#8217;approbation d&#8217;un prg: on pourrait donc soutenire la thèse que le cycle politico-électoral et le cycle administratif du plan ont presque toujours été dissociés, avec évidente faiblesse de l&#8217;un et de l&#8217;autre.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Dans cette situation, le problème administratif devient vite un problème technique et politique: c&#8217;est-à-dire, comment rendre plus flexible les choix des plans par rapport à la rigidité temporelle et technique des vieux instruments de planification.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Pendant les dix dernières années, on a en effet assisté en Europe à une extraordinaire fragmentation des formes du plan, soit juridiquement légitimées (comme effet de l&#8217;introduction de nouvelles procédures dans la réglementation nationale: le contrat de ville, en Italie les &#8220;accords de programme&#8221;&#8230;), soit ayant au contraire seulement une valeur informelle et locale (le Plan Programme pour l&#8217;Est parisien, en Italie des &#8220;délibérations programmatique&#8221; des municipalités&#8230;).</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">C&#8217;est le cas encore des &#8220;grands projets&#8221;, qui peuvent être separés du contexte de l&#8217;aménagement ordinaire pour suivre des parcours d&#8217;évaluation et d&#8217;approbation différenciés. Dans les plans généraux plus récents on voit, parfois, un surcroît d&#8217;attention donné à la définition détaillée des aspects concernant la réalisation de manière à ne pas avoir à approuver des plans executifs ultérieurs avant de réaliser les travaux. Enfin, on a vu la diffusion de l&#8217;institut du &#8220;plan préliminaire&#8221;, sorte de schéma directeur sans efficacité légale, qui annonce les principales interventions visées.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Toujours dans la recherche indiquée (Martinotti, Vicari 1994), cette situation est bien illustrée: en tout cas, 65% des communes a en cours la &#8220;révision&#8221; du prg, une procédure beaucoup plus simple qu&#8217;un nouveau plan.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">La révision est une parmi plusieurs éscamotages ou ruses pour introduire une ligne à double voie: le <em>status quo </em>et le nouveau dossier, donc des règles et le projet de règles nouvelles. Cette duplicité potentiellfse des règles peut être considérée comme un des indicateurs possibles d&#8217;une souplesse, à la fois institutionelle et culturelle, du rapport à la norme publique, souplesse qui a caracterisé sans doute l&#8217;expérience italienne de l&#8217;urbanisme des dernières années.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt"><em>Le blocage</em></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Le années &#8216;80 marquent un clivage dans le processus de développement de la capitale. Par rapport aux années passées, les transformations physiques de la ville sont limitées, c&#8217;est-à-dire que les réalisations sont peu nombreuses; les transformations touchent des zones peu étendues, les changements dans les fonctions principales sont limités. Si on regarde le programme exposé par le délégué à l&#8217;Urbanisme pendant la III Conference municipale sur l&#8217;urbanisme de 1986, on voit une liste d&#8217;interventions prioritaires qui n&#8217;ont pas encore été realisées (<sup><span style="font-size: xx-small"><a class="sdfootnoteanc" name="sdfootnote3anc" href="#sdfootnote3sym"><sup>2</sup></a></span></sup>).</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Mais le blocage n&#8217;est pas un dispositif total. La production immobilière a avancée, mais souvent au ralenti; la ville a changée. C&#8217;est un changement qui se déroule tout à l&#8217;intérieur du cadre bâti et du cadre normatif donné, par un accroissement continu mais léger et par des ruptures innovatrices des usages; d&#8217;autrepart (Cremaschi 1991), on a emprunté à la polémologie contemporaine l&#8217;image du conflit &#8220;à basse intensité&#8221; pour décrire le soudain blocage ou les accélérations forcées du cours des décisions. C&#8217;est un changement à &#8220;<em>basse</em> <em>intensité</em>&#8221; par rapport à la violente croissance urbaine à partir des années trentes jusqu&#8217;aux années Soixantes; c&#8217;est une transformation qualitative et fonctionelle de l&#8217;usage, des rôles, de la hiérarchie des diverses partie de la ville.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt"><em>Le blocage a opéré, dans une situation d&#8217;incertitude et de mouvement comme un système de filtrage</em>. De fait, le blocage signifie la &#8220;dé- légitimation&#8221; autant des procédures de décision basées sur des critères techniques que celles basées sur des critères politiques: l&#8217;administration finit par favoriser un critère de sélection &#8220;opportuniste&#8221;, qui récompense la coalition des intérêts plus habiles et plus résistants. Le paradoxe du blocage se révèle ainsi être une ressource inestimable pour le pouvoir politique: depuis les années soixante, on a utilisé un système de planning immobile et fossilisé pour faire des projets au coup par coup, avec de douteux résultats: pas d&#8217;opposition univoque autour de la même question, pas de compétition non plus, pas de programmes à moyen ou long terme; mais en revanche, la perpétuelle recherche de l&#8217;association parmi tous les promoteurs et la faiblesse de toute proposition qui innove.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">De ce point de vue, il est important de souligner que le blocage (de l&#8217;immobilier, du foncier, de l&#8217;économie urbaine) est à la fois une ruse de la rhétorique du gouvernement, et l&#8217;inverse &#8220;symmétrique&#8221; de la souplesse italienne du rapport à la norme publique.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Une souplesse tout simplement &#8220;dérèglementaire&#8221; tendra à avoir &#8220;pour fondement les pratiques clientélistes dans la distribution des biens publics, et pour effet les pratiques négatives illégales ( abus des autorisation de construire)&#8221; (Verpraet 1994); mais, en même temps, une flexibilité plus orientée tendra au contraire à contourner les blocages administratifs &#8220;par le développement par fragment de nouvelles formes d&#8217;organisation plus productives sur les lacunes du secteur public&#8221; (<em>ibidem</em>).</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt"><em>Deux capitales et trois sujets publics </em></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">C&#8217;est une géographe française qui, il y a quelques années (Seronde Babonaux 1980), a révélé qu&#8217; à Rome la construction massive des quartiers du dix-neuvième siècle d&#8217;abord, puis de la périphérie moderne, ne s&#8217;est pas produite à la suite d&#8217;un développement endogène, mais grâce à l&#8217;aide d&#8217;un corps étranger, c&#8217;est-à-dire le jeune état italien qui en 1870 s&#8217;empara de la capitale pontificale. Seronde Babonaux utilise la contraposition physique de l&#8217;&#8221;urbe&#8221; papale à la ville &#8220;piémontaise&#8221;, devenue italienne en suite, qui l&#8217;entoure, comme guide pour la description géographique et l&#8217;explication de ce qui la différencie des autres villes européennes (et italiennes). En réalité, l&#8217;&#8221;urbe&#8221; ancienne est plus imbriquée dans la ville moderne que ce que l&#8217;on croit, mais l&#8217;effet miroir du conflit au niveau social entre les &#8220;deux villes&#8221; est doublé du conflit institutionnel entre la ville et la capitale.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Pour comprendre l&#8217;évolution des politiques urbaines, il est donc nécessaire de tenir compte de la présence singulière de plusieurs souverainetés dans le même territoire, c&#8217;est-à-dire l&#8217;état et l&#8217;église. A un niveau tout à fait différent, la ville aussi, en principe soumise au faible contrôle de la région, est responsable de presque toutes les grandes décisions concernant le plan d&#8217;urbanisme, du génie urbain, du logement, des services, du réseau de transport en commun, etc.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Par exemple, tous les efforts de renouveau de l&#8217;urbanisme et les programmes des grands projets de Rome sont liés à la (re)localisation des services de l&#8217;état; mais ces &#8220;affaires d&#8217;état&#8221; sont menées face à une compétence municipale sur l&#8217;urbanisme; et d&#8217;autre part, la municipalité revendique la reconnaissance financière du rôle même de capitale, contribution que l&#8217;état a de la peine à concéder dans la mesure demandée. Sans volonté de collaborer ou, au contraire, sans pouvoirs de coercition, le jeu entre la commune et l&#8217;état tend souvent à annuler n&#8217;importe quelle initiative.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">La présence de la Cité du Vatican, des pèlerinages, des audiences, des sièges diplomatiques etc., impose de lourds péages d&#8217;organisation à la commune de Rome. Prenons comme exemple l&#8217;année Sainte (celle de 1950, ou la prochaine, de 2000): il s&#8217;agit d&#8217;un événement typiquement urbain, comme une grande foire ou une exposition, qui &#8220;consumme&#8221; la ville dans son ensemble pour plusieurs mois et nécessite des investissements en hotels, réseaux de transports publics, parkings, surveillances etc. C&#8217;est le Vatican qui décide des dates (ce qui n&#8217;exclut pas les surprises: l&#8217;actuel pape a promu une année Sainte extraordinaire entre les deux dates), la tutèle de l&#8217;initiative est attribuée par le Concordat de 1984 à l&#8217;état italien, et ce qui concerne l&#8217;organisation retombe sur la commune de Rome.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Le jeu entre les &#8220;trois têtes&#8221; institutionnelles des politiques urbaines romaines- état, commune et Vatican- est très vieux mais depuis peu se renouvelle, surtout en ce qui concerne l&#8217;importance croissante du rôle de la commune. Bien que capitale de l&#8217;Italie, et accueillant un état étranger &#8211; le Vatican- Rome n&#8217;a jamais joui d&#8217;un statut différent de celui des autres communes. A cause de cela justement, les rapports entre les trois sujets ne sont pas hiérarchisés d&#8217;une manière formelle; d&#8217;autre part, les connexions fonctionnelles, juridiques et opérationnelles sont extrêmement complexes.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">En ce qui concerne certains aspects des politiques urbaines, on peut dire que trois souverainetés se confrontent, dissemblables et relativement indépendantes; les relations entre ces trois sujets n&#8217;ont presque jamais été linéaires, pas même au moment de la rédaction des programmes. La superposition institutionnelle est donc le double de celle d&#8217;autres capitales, où elle se manifeste pourtant dans divers rapports (districts fédéraux etc). De plus, chaque sujet est en réalité multiple: par exemple, autant l&#8217;industrie publique que les finances du Vatican ont &#8220;joué&#8221; de manière autonome par rapport à l&#8217;état et à l&#8217;Eglise, participant directement à l&#8217;industrie de la construction de la capitale.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Cette cohabitation de trois sujets souverains (la commune n&#8217;est à proprement parler souveraine que dans le cadre des attributions précisées par une loi de l&#8217;état.) et territoriaux &#8211; surtout la commune- est en effet plutôt singulière. Notre réflexion sur les sujets institutionnels pourrait s&#8217;approfondir encore; ce que nous voudrions surtout souligner est la multiplicité des logiques d&#8217;organisation qui en résultent.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt"><em>Les logiques du développement urbain </em></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">On peut déterminer, du point de vue analytique, au-moins trois logiques d&#8217;action soutenant différentes organisations urbanistiques.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Chacune de ces logiques peut peut être interprétée comme un &#8220;type ideal&#8221; de stratégie de développement de la ville, dans laquelle s&#8217;inscrivent -à divers degrés- les éventuels programmes d&#8217;action des sujets publics et privés. Ces logiques d&#8217;organisation sont <em>alternatives</em> par essence (elles fournissent diverses solutions à des problèmes comuns: par exemple, à la localisation du tertiaire urbaine, ou à la typologie et au taux de dispersion des nouveaux logements),  mais naturellement elles produisent des effets qui, bien que contradictoires, sont <em>présents</em> <em>en même temps</em>. On peut donc considérer que la &#8220;hétérogénéité&#8221; des politiques urbaines de Rome, qui souvent désoriente autant le spécialiste que l&#8217;observateur, remonte à ce brassage (Cremaschi 1994a).</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Dans la schématisation qui suit sont reportés quelques exemples illustrant la manière dont les trois principaux sujets publics contribuent à chacune des <em>logiques</em> de développement, quoique de toute évidence chacune contribue de manière prédominante à une logique spécifique:</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">
<p style="margin-left: 14.2pt;text-indent: -14.2pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">- 	la <em>logique de la capitale </em>affronte le problème de l&#8217;organisation du &#8220;poste de commandement&#8221; de l&#8217;état, et s&#8217;est surtout manifestée avec des projets de &#8220;re-concentration&#8221; directionnelle et de création des districts de business modernes, tel que l&#8217;a été en son temps l&#8217;Eur, quartier des ministères choisi par le régime fasciste pour l&#8217;Exposition de 1942. Sur le papier, il existe un secteur privilégié de la périphérie pour la &#8220;re-concentration&#8221; des bureaux publics; en pratique, la concentration continue autour de la ville politique. Le siège théorique de la reconcentration est le secteur oriental où, dans les années soixantes fut désigné le SDO (le Système Directionnel Oriental: presque 10 millions de <em>m<span style="font-size: x-small"><sup>2</sup></span></em> de bureaux, à l&#8217;origine même 40 millions, autour d&#8217;un axe infrastructurel). Le fait que ce projet soit encore inachevé démontre la faiblesse de cette logique d&#8217;action et le manque d&#8217;accord de fond avec la commune, ainsi que l&#8217;ambiguité de l&#8217;état. A l&#8217;origine, l&#8217;idée était que le SDO puisse être considéré comme une opération d&#8217;avantages réciproques pour la commune et l&#8217;état: en fait, la &#8220;re-localisation&#8221; des Ministères de l&#8217;état aurait rationnalisé les sièges administratifs, et aurait induit la &#8220;re-qualification&#8221; de la périphérie orientale de la ville (permettant entre autres de réaliser infrastructures, métro, parcs etc). Au contraire, l&#8217;état garde encore plus de 70% de ses propres bureaux dans le centre ou à l&#8217;Eur (environ 8 millions de m2); et il a agrandi les sièges ou en a réalisé de nouveaux (3 millions de m2 seulement dans les années 80) faisant recours à des procédures spéciales qui ne tiennent pas compte du prg de la commune. La valeur  du SDO aujourd&#8217;hui est donc presque nulle (Perulli 1994): mais on ne sait pas encore quels programmes pourront hériter de ce rôle.</p>
<p style="margin-left: 14.2pt;text-indent: -14.1pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">
<p style="margin-left: 14.2pt;text-indent: -14.1pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">-	la <em>logique des villes globales </em>(pas tant de la politique et de la finance, comme New-York, Tokyo etc., mais de l&#8217;esprit, comme Jérusalem, Calcutta) affronte le problème des fonctions d&#8217;excellence au niveau mondial (religion, tourisme, culture, sport, diplomatie) et s&#8217;est manifestée dans les propositions de grandes infrastructures: aéroports, transports en commun, liaisons variées, centres technologiques, grands aménagements de musées et centres culturels etc. Au point de vue du territoire, cette logique ne privilégie pas un lieu spécifique, et même d&#8217;une certaine façon se désintéresse du centre traditionnel. Eventuellement, on privilégie le décentrage sélectif de certaines fonctions importantes vers les pôles périphériques, mettant en évidence le caractère différencié des &#8220;vocations&#8221; fonctionnelles des secteurs territoriaux de la ville. Cette deuxième logique implique une modernisation diffuse qui peut procéder par projets graduels et est relativement indifférente au rôle de capitale institutionnelle de Rome. Il s&#8217;agit en apparence d&#8217;une logique plus concurrentielle que la première, qui nécessite de nouveaux acteurs et promoteurs dans divers domaines, tels que les domaines religieux, culturel, cinématographique, sportif, etc. Un exemple important bien que presque ignoré est la présence d&#8217;un &#8220;quartier des affaires&#8221; du Vatican. En fait, les instituts religieux et les grandes congrégations ont réussi à réaliser, dans les tournures du prg, une sorte de centre directionnel religieux dans le Secteur Ouest, au service de toute la chrétienté.</p>
<p style="margin-left: 14.2pt;text-indent: -14.1pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">
<p style="margin-left: 14.2pt;text-indent: -14.1pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">-	la <em>logique de la métropole</em>, enfin, affronte -comme dans toutes les grandes métropoles du monde- le problème de l&#8217;organisation urbaine, en particulier le problème du logement et, plus récemment, le problème des transports et de la mobilité (l&#8217;identité des grands quartiers périphériques, la spécialisation fonctionnelle des secteurs urbains, les liaisons entre le centre et les communes de l&#8217;aire métropolitaine, etc, sont d&#8217;autres problèmes importants). Il serait laborieux de rendre compte des actions des administrations de diverses époques et des indications politiques, mais en résumé nous pouvons affirmer qu&#8217;on a toléré une dispersion élevée des interventions (Cremaschi 1991) ainsi qu&#8217;une considérable production informelle de logements illégaux. Les équipements urbains ont été maintes fois réalisés après les quartiers abusifs; le nombre des logements publics a été limité dans le temps et de toute façon récemment réduit à cause du manque de ressources (l&#8217;incidence de la construction publique, égale à 60% du total en 1980, s&#8217;est trouvée réduite à 11% dix ans plus tard). Le travail concernant les infrastructures de transport a été tardif et très onéreux (au cours des années 80, il est monté de 24,7% à 49,4% des investissements de la Comune). En ce qui concerne le territoire, on ne définit pas de claires stratégies si pas en termes négatifs envers la ville existante: en fait, la construction informelle abusive a privilégié la dispersion résidentielle; tandis que le logement public a privilegié la banlieue.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt"><em>Entre logiques et politiques</em></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Le &#8220;désordre&#8221; parmi les logiques d&#8217;actions des sujets publics et leurs stratégies se réfléchit donc dans le décalage des politiques urbaines, dans l&#8217;absence d&#8217;un programme unitaire, dans l&#8217;effort croissant pour soutenir l&#8217;incertitude.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">D&#8217;ailleurs, un aspect commun à toutes les définitions de politique urbaine est le mélange des effets inattendus avec les cours des actions intentionnelles: dans une démarche pragmatique, comme un &#8220;programme d&#8217;action&#8221; de l&#8217;autorité publique ou gouvernementale (Thoenig 1985); en termes systémiques et régulatifs, comme un &#8220;processus de médiation sociale&#8221; (Muller 1990); ou encore, d&#8217;un point de vue constructiviste, comme l&#8217;outil d&#8217;une analyse, &#8220;construit&#8221; par l&#8217;observateur (Crosta 1990).</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">La politique donnée est le résultat (et donc pas seulement un programme) d&#8217;un processus d&#8217;interaction sociale, mais d&#8217;un processus ouvert par essence, qui implique de nombreux acteurs (et pas seulement les acteurs dévoués à la politique à cause de la bureaucratie ou par impératif de la fonction sociale).</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">La démarche qui caractérise cette définition de la politique est l&#8217;ampleur et la variété potentielle du <em>network</em> d&#8217;acteurs sociaux engagés dans la politique, plutôt que le problème que la politique donnée vise à résoudre. Il n&#8217;est donc pas impossible d&#8217;avoir plusieurs niveaux de politique urbaine en même temps objet et résultat des <em>networks</em> des différents acteurs. De ce fait, on ne peut pas ignorer que la principale différence entre les logiques de développement est justement l&#8217;importance diverse de la cohésion du <em>network</em> des acteurs.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">A ce stade, on peut introduire des liaisons entre logiques et politiques. La condition pour la réalisation de la première logique était une forte intentionnalité, et l&#8217;accord décidé par au-moins deux sujets publics, l&#8217;état et la commune; éléments qui au contraire sont venus tous deux à manquer. Les ressources de consensus à mobiliser devaient donc être beaucoup plus fortes que celles impliquées dans d&#8217;autres conduites. En réalité, le SDO a été la plus célèbre victime du blocage du système.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Au contraire, les logiques ayant obtenu du succès ont été celles capables de s&#8217;insérer dans les interstices du système administratif et de décider d&#8217;accords avec le système politique. C&#8217;est par exemple le cas du directionnel qui s&#8217;est beaucoup développé à Rome aussi, bien que moins qu&#8217;en Europe (<sup><span style="font-size: xx-small"><a class="sdfootnoteanc" name="sdfootnote4anc" href="#sdfootnote4sym"><sup>3</sup></a></span></sup>), et dans lequel la &#8220;déconcentration&#8221; dans la périphérie métropolitaine des sièges ou des services techniques publics (Banca d&#8217;Italia, Université, Istat&#8230;) a pris un poids considérable. C&#8217;est aussi le cas des actions informelles, des &#8220;nouveaux castors&#8221; et des travaux publics réalisés pour le Mondial de football (remaniement du stade, liaison ferroviaire avec l&#8217;aéroport, tangentiale etc.)</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Le système du blocage a vite laissé voir les conséquences négatives, surtout en termes de choix tout sauf optimaux, inefficacité économique, corruption et coûts croissants. Une des raisons en est la faiblesse des fonctions qui, en France notamment, &#8220;sont associées à la maîtrise d&#8217;ouvrage publique et privée (programmation, évaluation, édification&#8221;) (Verpraet 1994), dont la rationalisation se heurte à la faiblesse de l&#8217;administration publique surtout au niveau local, autant du point de vue technique que du point de vue des ressources économiques (la taxation locale est encore étroitement limitée, tandis que les normes gérées par l&#8217;état imposent des standards techniques élevés); en général, on inpute à l&#8217;instabilité et l&#8217;incertitude politique la déstructuration de l&#8217;appareil technico-administratif de l&#8217;état.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Dans ce contexte, il n&#8217;est pas étonnant que les travaux publics réalisés en Italie pour le &#8220;rendez-vous- spectacle&#8221; du Mondial de football de 1990 aient coûtés, selon les évaluations, de 6.500 à 8.000 milliards de lires, plus du double coût (en valeurs de l&#8217;époque) des Grands Travaux parisiens, ou des investissements de l&#8217;état anglais pour les Docklands de Londres (Bellicini 1991). Pendant la même période, d&#8217;autre part, la reconstruction de Naples après le tremblement de terre a coûté trois fois la somme prévue (SPS 1991).</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Donc, le blocage a été la &#8220;formule&#8221; d&#8217;une conjoncture qui a administré des avantages illicites par des choix qui n&#8217;étaient ni publics ni optimaux, mortifiant en même temps la raison technique et politique: sa limite n&#8217;est pas simplement une limite d&#8217;<em>efficacité</em> de l&#8217;action publique. D&#8217;autres résultats auraient pu être assurés seulement à condition que les objectifs du système aient été changés d&#8217;avantage.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Mais il vaut mieux souligner ce que le blocage a en commun avec ce qui caractérise l&#8217;action publique depuis toujours (de Lara 1993): elle peut apparaître comme soit <em>trop politisée</em> (quand les problèmes techniques sont réglés par des choix politiques); soit, au contraire, <em>pas assez politisée </em>(quand les choix techniques s&#8217;avèrent étrangers aux règles de la représentation politique et au jeu des coalitions décisionnelles).</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Le mélange correct est donc un problème qui concerne tous les systèmes de plan, en particulier ceux qui s&#8217;adressent aux situations innovatrices (où la &#8220;puissance&#8221; publique opère un transfert de responsabilité politique vers des sujets privés); ces dernières étant des situations de mobilisation &#8220;des acteurs publics et privés, dans le cadre d&#8217;une action conjointe, visant des objets de négociation jugés réalisables dans une zone spécifique&#8221; (Crosta 1991).</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt"><em>Retour de la politique?</em></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Le manque d&#8217;efficacité est un reproche typiquement libéral: la vague libériste voudrait étendre au plan d&#8217;urbanisme la flexibilité, la spécialisation, la réduction des délais, la mobilité dans l&#8217;espace, les caractères de la production industrielle plus moderne (<sup><span style="font-size: xx-small"><a class="sdfootnoteanc" name="sdfootnote5anc" href="#sdfootnote5sym"><sup>4</sup></a></span></sup>). Le marché remplacerait la formule étatique classique, qui associait technique et politique dans l&#8217;action publique, par le recours aux forces du marché: deréglementation et dépolitisation, donc, progresseraient ensemble. Ce remarque a été justement inversé (Crosta 1991): au contraire, le retour de la politique affecterait les entreprises privées elles-mêmes.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Les nouvelles expériences en cours au niveau local, à Rome comme ailleurs, paraissent suivre pour le moment ce second modèle: la sortie du blocage est suivie de l&#8217;extension des règles publiques et de l&#8217;approbation de programmes politiques. La réforme a donné aux maires un surplus de légitimité et d&#8217;efficacité par rapport au niveau institutionnel central: en effet, le &#8220;tournant&#8221; vers la deuxième République est encore loin de l&#8217;accomplissement. D&#8217;autre part, les procédures dans le domaine de l&#8217;urbanisme n&#8217;ont pas changé: le changement s&#8217;opère donc dans le cadre législatif et administratif connu, sans autre nouveauté que le recours aux outils d&#8217;&#8221;autocoordination&#8221; au niveau local pour avancer les réformes que l&#8217;état ou les Régions tardent à introduire. Ces changements semblent préceder une &#8220;ré-orientation&#8221; des politiques urbaines et de la culture politique locale.(Perulli 1994).</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Jusqu&#8217;à aujourd&#8217;hui, le plan général d&#8217;urbanisme, jugé inadéquat du point de vue technique et par rapport à la séquence temporelle, était contourné par les projets d&#8217;aires ou grâce aux grands travaux publics (approuvés par des procédures spéciales). Maintenant qu&#8217;on a annoncé de nouveaux plans pour des villes importantes (Milan, Catane, Palerme, Bologne, Vincenza) on n&#8217;assistera pas à l&#8217;exhumation du vieil outillage. Car <em>&#8220;the era of the grand plan has passed&#8221;</em> (comme on le récite à la London Docklands Development Corporation), les villes nécessitent un <em>programme </em>qui soit&#8221; un programme politique, qui puisse définir avec clarté les buts, les objectifs, les secteurs et les lieux où on désire intervenir&#8221; (Folin 1990).</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Un tel programme est l&#8217;objet, en ce moment, d&#8217;une sorte d&#8217;&#8221;autoréforme&#8221; locale (Cremaschi 1994b): au-delà des expérimentations en cours (plan directeur, pacte pour le developpement local, projet d&#8217;aire, etc.), l&#8217;adjectif commun à chacune est &#8220;stratégique&#8221; (<sup><span style="font-size: xx-small"><a class="sdfootnoteanc" name="sdfootnote6anc" href="#sdfootnote6sym"><sup>5</sup></a></span></sup>), c&#8217;est-à-dire la thématique du rapport entre les nombreux sujets et les raisons diverses (publiques et privées) (<sup><span style="font-size: xx-small"><a class="sdfootnoteanc" name="sdfootnote7anc" href="#sdfootnote7sym"><sup>6</sup></a></span></sup>).</p>
<p style="margin-left: 14.2pt;text-indent: -14.2pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><strong>Ouvrages cités</strong></p>
<p style="margin-left: 14.2pt;text-indent: -14.2pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">
<p style="margin-left: 14.2pt;text-indent: -14.2pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">Bellicini L., 1991, a cura di, <em>La costruzione della città europea negli anni &#8216;80</em>, Roma, Credito Fondiario.</p>
<p style="margin-left: 14.2pt;text-indent: -14.2pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">Cremaschi, M., 1991, &#8220;Urbanistica a bassa intensità: il caso di Roma&#8221;, in L. Bellicini, <em>cit</em>.</p>
<p style="margin-left: 14.2pt;text-indent: -14.2pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">Cremaschi M., 1994a, &#8220;L&#8217;organizzazione territoriale dell&#8217;area romana. Dinamiche e rappresentazioni degli anni Ottanta&#8221;, in A. Fubini, a cura di, <em>I problemi delle grandi aree metropolitane</em>, F. Angeli.</p>
<p style="margin-left: 14.2pt;text-indent: -14.2pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">Cremaschi M., 1994b, &#8220;La denazionalizzazione del problema abitativo&#8221;, <em>Urbanistica</em> 102</p>
<p style="margin-left: 14.2pt;text-indent: -14.2pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">Crosta P.L., 1990, &#8220;La politica urbanistica&#8221;, in B. Dente, a cura di, <em>Le politiche pubbliche in Italia</em>, il Mulino, Bologna</p>
<p style="margin-left: 14.2pt;text-indent: -14.2pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">Crosta P.L., 1991, &#8220;Politiche urbanistiche, nuovi attori e trasformazione della città&#8221;, in L. Bellicini, <em>cit.</em></p>
<p style="margin-left: 14.2pt;text-indent: -14.2pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">de Lara Ph., &#8220;Les langages de l&#8217;état&#8221;, in <em>Le futur de l&#8217;état</em>, convegno del Ministère del l&#8217;Equipement-PCA, Paris, 17 feb. 1992.</p>
<p style="margin-left: 14.2pt;text-indent: -14.2pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">Folin M., 1990, Il piano che è fallito, <em>MicroMega</em>, 1</p>
<p style="margin-left: 14.2pt;text-indent: -14.2pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">Martinotti G., Vicari S., 1994, &#8220;La formazione del piano regolatore generale&#8221;, in AA.VV., <em>Le decisioni di opera pubblica e di urbanistica nelle città</em>,. Archivio Isap, Nuova Serie, 7, Giuffré, Milano</p>
<p style="margin-left: 14.2pt;text-indent: -14.2pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">Merloni F., Santantonio V., Torchia L., 1988, <em>Le funzioni del governo locale in Italia</em>, Milano, Giuffré.</p>
<p style="margin-left: 14.2pt;text-indent: -14.2pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">Muller P., 1990, <em>Les politiques pubbliques</em>, Puf, Paris</p>
<p style="margin-left: 14.2pt;text-indent: -14.2pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">Perulli P., 1994, &#8220;La costruzione delle nuove politiche urbane&#8221;, in <em>Casabella</em>, pp. 23 e ss.</p>
<p style="margin-left: 14.2pt;text-indent: -14.2pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">Seronde Babonaux A.M., 1980, <em>De l&#8217;Urbs à la ville: Rome. Croissance d&#8217;une capitale</em>, Edisud, Aix en Provence, (tr. it. 1983)</p>
<p style="margin-left: 14.2pt;text-indent: -14.2pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">SPS, 1991, <em>8° Rapporto sullo stato dei poteri locali</em>, Roma.</p>
<p style="margin-left: 14.2pt;text-indent: -14.2pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">Thœnig J.-C., 1985, &#8220;L&#8217;analyse des politiques publiques&#8221;, in M. Grawitz, J. Leca, <em>Traité de science politique</em>, t. IV, Puf, Paris</p>
<p style="margin-left: 14.2pt;text-indent: -14.2pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">Tocci W., 1993, <em>Roma, che ne facciamo</em>, Editori Riuniti, Roma.</p>
<p class="sdfootnote">Verpraet G., 1994, &#8220;Plans et projets en horizon flexible, trajectoire Franco-Italiennes&#8221;, en <em>Recherches sur le projet et les concepteurs</em>, Ministère du Logement-Pca, Paris (Actes du séminaire Euro-conception, Paris, 28-29 sept. 1993</p>
<p class="sdfootnote">
<div id="sdfootnote1"></div>
<div id="sdfootnote2">
<p class="sdfootnote"><a class="sdfootnotesym-western" name="sdfootnote2sym" href="#sdfootnote2anc">1</a> Ce paragraphe est partiellement repris, avec modifications, d&#8217;une 	communication de l&#8217;auteur au séminaire: “Euro-conception, 	Recherches sur le projet et les concepteurs”, Paris, 28-29 sept. 	1993.</p>
</div>
<div id="sdfootnote3">
<p class="sdfootnote"><a class="sdfootnotesym-western" name="sdfootnote3sym" href="#sdfootnote3anc">2</a> Le blocage frappe d&#8217;abord la réalisation du SDO; le projet de 	Gregotti e Benevolo pour le grand Parc Archéologique du 	Centre Historique et de la rue Appia Antica; le Centre des Congrès 	et d&#8217;expositions, l&#8217;auditorium de Flaminio (dont le projet a été 	presenté en 1994 par R. Piano); les nouveaux Marchés 	Généraux, le centre ferroviaire de SetteBagni, le port 	turistique à Ostie, le renouveau du quartier de la Gare 	Termini; l&#8217;agrandissement de l&#8217;Université II, la réalisation 	de l&#8217;Université III et le plan du quartier de la gare 	Ostiense; le complément de l&#8217;anneau ferroviaire etc. Seuls 	échappent au blocage la deuxième ligne du metro, les 	projets pour le Mondial de Football Italia &#8216;90: le renouveau du 	stade de football, la nouvelle liaison ferroviaire rapide avec 	l&#8217;aéréoport de Fiumicino, outre quelques grands 	magasins dans la banlieue, des grands ensembles et nombreux 	pavillons illégaux.</p>
</div>
<div id="sdfootnote4">
<p class="sdfootnote"><a class="sdfootnotesym-western" name="sdfootnote4sym" href="#sdfootnote4anc">3</a> A Londres, pendant les années 1987-89 seulement, ont a 	terminé plus de 2,1 millions de m<sup>2 </sup>de bâtiments 	pour les activités tertiaires; plus de 6,1 million de m<sup>2</sup> étaient en voie de costruction; et on disposait de permis de 	construire 12 millions de m<sup>2 </sup>encore. En région 	Île-de-France pendant les années &#8216;80 on a octroyé 	permis de contruire pour 15 millions de m<sup>2</sup> (Bellicini 	1991).  En même temps, à Rome, on a realisé 6 	millions de m<sup>2 </sup>pour le logement populaire et presque 1 	million de m<sup>2 </sup>de bâtiments pour les activités 	tertiaires (Cremaschi 1991).</p>
</div>
<div id="sdfootnote5">
<p class="sdfootnote"><a class="sdfootnotesym-western" name="sdfootnote5sym" href="#sdfootnote5anc">4</a> La méfiance répandue envers le plan d&#8217;urbanisme est 	esemplifié par la remarque contenue dans une étude 	redigée pour le Ministère du Bilan et du Plan: &#8220;un 	programme d&#8217;investissement ne peut pas être subordonné 	d&#8217;une façon rigide aux contenus et aux procédures 	d&#8217;élaboration des plans d&#8217;urbanisme&#8221;.</p>
</div>
<div id="sdfootnote6">
<p class="sdfootnote"><a class="sdfootnotesym-western" name="sdfootnote6sym" href="#sdfootnote6anc">5</a> Par planification stratégique on entend &#8220;un processus 	(soutenu par des instruments analytiques et techniques) d&#8217;adaptation 	et d&#8217;exploration, construit de façon non séquentielle, 	mais par phases de définition/redéfinition, de 	développement et évaluation d&#8217;alternatives multiples, 	de compréhension et construction des interactions parmi les 	acteurs&#8221; (Perulli 1994).</p>
</div>
<div id="sdfootnote7">
<p class="sdfootnote"><a class="sdfootnotesym-western" name="sdfootnote7sym" href="#sdfootnote7anc">6</a> A Rome, en particulier, a été proposée 	l&#8217;articulation en dix zones qui devraient unir les &#8220;municipalità&#8221; 	(c&#8217;est à dire les arrondissements qui naîtront du 	partage de la commune actuelle) et les communes de la proche 	banlieue; en outre, une &#8220;confèrence permanente&#8221; 	dévra coordonner les sujets publics locaux. On est en train 	de rédiger un &#8220;plan directeur métropolitain&#8221; 	et des projets locaux, par zones (&#8221;progetti d&#8217;area&#8221;) ou 	par secteurs (aires naturelles, parcs publics, zones industrielles, 	voiries, transports en commun, grands équipements 	commerciaux). L&#8217;&#8221;occupation des sols&#8221; sera réglée 	par des prg de zones dont la responsabilité portera sur 	chaque commune métropolitaine. De plus, les problèmes 	de coordination avec les communes environnantes et la programmation 	économique font de nouveau partie de l&#8217;agenda politique 	local.</p>
</div>
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		<title>Arezzo: un&#8217;esperienza di pianificazione strategica</title>
		<link>http://cremaschi.dipsu.it/partnerships-strategie-e-governance-del-territorio/arezzo-unesperienza-di-pianificazione-strategica/</link>
		<comments>http://cremaschi.dipsu.it/partnerships-strategie-e-governance-del-territorio/arezzo-unesperienza-di-pianificazione-strategica/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Fri, 16 Oct 2009 07:07:28 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>editore</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Partnerships, strategie e governance del territorio]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Arezzo]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[politiche]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Ricerca applicata/Rapporti]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Scenari]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Sviluppo territoriale]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://cremaschi.dipsu.it/?p=170</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Attraverso il Piuss, l&#8217;amministrazione e la comunità di Arezzo hanno iniziato ad affrontare il cambiamento di prospettiva che la città si trova di fronte. Il Piuss è dunque l&#8217;inizio di un confronto strategico. Ci sono diversi modi di intendere la nozione di strategia applicata a una città: da un lato, nella più fertile [...]]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Attraverso il Piuss, l&#8217;amministrazione e la comunità di Arezzo hanno iniziato ad affrontare il cambiamento di prospettiva che la città si trova di fronte. Il Piuss è dunque l&#8217;inizio di un confronto strategico. Ci sono diversi modi di intendere la nozione di strategia applicata a una città: da un lato, nella più fertile delle accezioni correnti, è il momento in cui diversi soggetti -per esempio, il comune, la provincia, la regione, ma anche le imprese pubbliche, alcuni investitori privati, ecc. coordinano i propri programmi di spesa e d’intervento, scambiandosi preziose informazioni riguardo a tempi e priorità; dall&#8217;altro, in un approccio più vasto e solo apparentemente meno cogente, l&#8217;intera comunità, le forze sociali, i gruppi e le rappresentanze territoriali si mobilitano per esplicitare le proprie attese e resistenze, in particolare in un momento di dura trasformazione come quello attuale, e così facendo si mettono nella condizione di apprendere nuovi comportamenti e modi di rapporto, si aprono a delle relazioni e a delle ragioni almeno in parte nuove e inedite.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Le due accezioni non sono tra loro contraddittorie, e in parte si sostengono reciprocamente. La domanda è casomai quanto sia necessario insistere sull&#8217;una per avviare l&#8217;altra, e viceversa. Tutte e due conducono alla domanda fondamentale di come si affronti il cambiamento. Questa domanda è stato appannaggio storico della politica, nel senso alto del termine, della capacità cioè di dare senso e rendere uniti i cittadini intorno ad un progetto comune di azioni orientate al futuro. Oggi la politica democratica è in difficoltà ovunque di fronte alle sfide di una crisi improvvisa, ma anche di fronte alla gestione di una trasformazione epocale i cui confini sono ancora incerti.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">
<div id="attachment_173" class="wp-caption aligncenter" style="width: 410px"><a href="http://cremaschi.dipsu.it/files/2009/10/AMBITI-17-12-08-copia.jpg"><img class="size-medium wp-image-173" src="http://cremaschi.dipsu.it/files/2009/10/AMBITI-17-12-08-copia-400x253.jpg" alt="Ambiti di intervento del Piuss di Arezzo" width="400" height="253" /></a><p class="wp-caption-text">Ambiti di intervento del Piuss di Arezzo</p></div>
<address> </address>
<address>Il piano strategico della citta&#8217; di Arezzo e&#8217; risultato primo nella  graduatoria della regione Toscana tra i 16 Piani integrati di sviluppo urbano  sostenibile (Piuss) approvati dalla Regione, che riguardano 548 di euro  di investimento complessivo a valere sui Fondi comunitari del POR. Il  progetto “La città &#8216;polifonica&#8217;. Arezzo cambia il ritmo!&#8221;comprende 32  proposte raggruppate in 6 progetti. Gli interventi più importanti  riguardano la riqualificazione del centro storico con un mix di sostegno  alla innovazione tecnologica e promozione di attivita&#8217; culturali.</address>
<address>Il gruppo di lavoro del Dipartimento di Studi Urbani dell’Università degli Studi Roma Tre (oltre al comune, partecipava anche il Politecnico di Milano) era composto da Viviana Andriola, Sandra Annunziata, Mara Cossu,  Anna Paola Di Risio, Viviana Fini, Carlotta Fioretti, Claudia Meschiari, Viola Mordenti, AnnaLisa Patriarchi. Coordinamento scientifico: Marco Cremaschi. Coordinamento tecnico: Sandra Annunziata.<br />
<a href="http://www.regione.toscana.it/regione/export/RT/sito-RT/Contenuti/sezioni/economia_finanza/credito/visualizza_asset.html_1686632656.html">www.regione.toscana.it/regione/export/RT/sito-RT/Contenuti/sezioni/economia_finanza/credito/visualizza_asset.html_1686632656.html</a></address>
<address><img src="http://cremaschi.dipsu.it/wp-includes/js/tinymce/plugins/wordpress/img/trans.gif" alt="" /></address>
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<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt"><span id="more-170"></span>Per i motivi anzidetti,  l&#8217;amministrazione comunale di Arezzo ha scelto di impostare il Piuss su tre linee:</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">come un programma di opere e 	interventi realistico e di breve periodo, volto alla riconquista del 	centro storico;</p>
</li>
<li>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">come una parte di un disegno di 	lungo periodo che persegue la più ambiziosa -e non immediata- 	trasformazione della città in un distretto culturale;</p>
</li>
<li>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">come un intervento infine di aiuto 	alla riflessione e alla consapevolezza dell’amministrazione (lo 	stile del lavoro del Piuss è molto diverso da quello 	ordinario); e alla città (le domande alla politica rispondono 	ad attese culturali, e tutte e due sono state oggetto di un’indagine 	critica).</p>
</li>
</ul>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">L&#8217;orizzonte strategico è dunque ampio, e come tutte le strategie, incerto e pieno di azzardi (auspicabilmente soprattutto positivi): rispetto a tutto ciò, il Piuss appare solo come un inizio. Le opere pubbliche e gli interventi previsti dal Piuss s’iscrivono perciò in una prospettiva di più vasto respiro, di cui altri &#8216;mattoni&#8217; importanti sono:</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">le trasformazioni previste nelle 	aree strategiche del piano strutturale, che daranno continuità 	e coerenza al tessuto edificato, venendo a valorizzare i siti 	(militari, industriali o ferroviari), dismessi o sottoutilizzati, 	compresi tra il centro storico e il Palazzo dell&#8217;Innovazione 	recentemente completato con fondi regionali nella zona Fiera;</p>
</li>
<li>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">le prossime celebrazioni nazionali 	e internazionali, che accentueranno il profilo e l&#8217;immagine 	culturale e turistica della città.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Arezzo sta dunque cercando attraverso il Piuss di <em>cambiare il passo, e di individuare una sequenza di operazioni strategiche che affrontano obiettivi strutturali e ambiziosi.</em></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Il Piuss di Arezzo investe tre ambiti del centro storico (fortezza, piazza Grande, le ex caserme) con un insieme d’interventi e opere integrate, relativi sia a edifici che a spazi urbani con l&#8217;intento di riportare attività di servizio alla città e alle imprese nel centro storico, come pure attività ricreative e culturali d’interesse nazionale e turistico; e, viceversa, diversificare la monoresidenzialità delle periferie vicine. Infatti, sempre per rompere la monofunzionalità, il Piuss porta servizi urbani e di promozione tecnologica in due appendici periferiche, in diretto contatto con il centro storico o con le aree strategiche del piano strutturale.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Il tema posto dal Piuss riguarda dunque:</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">il superamento della 	contrapposizione astratta e monofunzionale tra centro e periferia, 	lascito indesiderato del relativamente breve passato industriale e 	delle sue mai dimenticate radiche agricole;</p>
</li>
<li>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">l&#8217;avvio della trasformazione del 	sistema produttivo locale in un distretto urbano della conoscenza, 	dove attività di servizio, educazione e produzione 	manifatturiera dialoghino sia funzionalmente che spazialmente.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">La modernità ad Arezzo ha, infatti, proposto un divorzio funzionale tra il lavoro e la città, che si è tradotta in una scissione spaziale tra il centro e le nuove aree di sviluppo. Nel secolo scorso ad Arezzo, si è lavorato e risieduto preferibilmente nei nuovi quartieri e nelle nuove aree produttive, lasciando il centro storico ad un relativo abbandono. Oggi, il ritorno di gente e investitori nel centro storico rischia di confinarlo -come già avvenuto altrove- al commercio, al turismo e alle attività ricreative, creando l&#8217;ennesimo falso ambiente per pochi privilegiati.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">E&#8217; segno di troppa ambizione che il Piuss si proponga di invertire questa tendenza? La risposta è solo apparentemente contraddittoria. Per le dimensioni e le risorse del Piuss è certamente troppo; ma per l&#8217;avvio di un processo è invece opportuno e necessario. Arezzo comincia ora a confrontarsi con la sua natura di città industriale, non confinata peraltro ai limiti comunali. E a valorizzare senza imbarazzi il suo profondo legame con la terra e le attività agricole, i pascoli e i boschi, il paesaggio e la geografia di un territorio nuovamente non limitato al perimetro della città, ma a questa profondamente legato. E&#8217; cruciale che questo passaggio, il passaggio all&#8217;economia della conoscenza, alla società globalizzata, non venga affrontato sulle ceneri della rimozione del passato, com’è stato in precedenza.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">La città industriale è stata un’organizzazione potente, che ha rotto i ritmi del mondo contadino e ha imposto regole funzionali d’uso di parti di città; e ruoli chiari e funzionali tra le parti sociali, che si sono rispecchiati anche nella rigida zonizzazione urbanistica e nei disciplinari dei piani. La crisi di questo modello di città moderna, industriale e funzionalista, si verifica paradossalmente allorché la maggior parte della popolazione del pianeta si concentra in città. Questa stessa crisi pone un problema di <em>cittadinanza</em>. Il cinico festival di nuove architetture (oggetto tra l&#8217;altro di numerosi programmi strategici urbani) cerca di mascherare questa crisi, ma non chiarisce <em>di cosa</em> siamo cittadini. Il Piuss ha approfondito, nei limiti del suo mandato, queste due domande: quale città, quale cittadinanza.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt">Domande al centro anche del processo della globalizzazione economica, che ha segnato l&#8217;ultimo trentennio (e che manifesta ora la prima rilevante crisi), e che propone un nuovo ruolo per le città, non privo di rischi. In sintesi, la grande narrazione della città globale porta a insistere sulla competitività dei luoghi. Letture più attente problematizzano questa visione, e riaffermano un certo livello di autonomia del territorio. Su questo sfondo, si manifesta la possibilità di un ruolo specifico delle città non solo nelle politiche redistributive, ma anche in quelle economiche. Per questo le città cercano di attrezzarsi per svolgere una politica economica locale: non si limitano a <em>ospitare</em>, come negli anni del boom economico, o al massimo a <em>compensare</em> con i servizi sociali i costi dell’industrializzazione (come negli anni Settanta), ma cercano di <em>coordinare investimenti e strategie degli attori dell’economia e del territorio</em>.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">La Commissione Europea spera –come noto- che la competitività delle città sostenga la crescita di tutta l’Unione, e si propone di raggiungerla attraverso il miglioramento di alcuni fattori:</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">da una parte, la 	<em>connettività</em> (infrastrutture e reti sia materiali che 	immateriali), l’<em>innovazione tecnologica,</em> la qualificazione 	della <em>forza lavoro</em>; tutti quegli elementi che fanno del 	territorio un sistema efficiente e creativo;</p>
</li>
<li>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">dall&#8217;altra, la 	<em>capacità umana;</em> la <em>qualità della vita</em> e 	l’<em>abitabilità</em> del territorio; gli elementi cioè 	di <em>qualità dell’ambiente </em>urbano e sociale. In senso 	più ampio, la <em>‘polifonia’ </em>delle esperienze urbane 	è considerata una ricchezza alla pari dell’ambiente di 	vita, e tutte e due sono considerati elementi di sostegno e 	distinzione del posizionamento economico.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">e, infine, la 	<em>capacità strategica</em> di mobilitare e implementare 	strategie di sviluppo a lungo termine, che presuppone il 	rinnovamento del modello di governance locale.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">Il Piuss si riparte su questi tre macro-fattori, in quest&#8217;ordine;</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">gli interventi 	finanziariamente più consistenti insistono più sul 	secondo fattore, per via della concentrazione in un centro storico 	di qualità (fortezza, piazza grande e Fraternita, ambiente 	urbano);</p>
</li>
<li>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">gli interventi 	qualificanti relativi al primo fattore perseguono tutti i possibili 	nessi tra l&#8217;attuale sistema produttivo e il distretto della 	conoscenza a venire (scuola design, polo digitale, centro musica);</p>
</li>
<li>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">il Piuss stesso ha 	prodotto una riformulazione dello stile di lavoro del comune e di 	rapporto con i cittadini, che si è già tradotto in una 	parziale riorganizzazione degli uffici e si consoliderà 	ulteriormente nel rafforzamento dell&#8217;ufficio Programmi europei, da 	un lato, Opere pubbliche, gare e appalti dall&#8217;altro.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0pt" align="justify">Ma è chiaro che il paniere delle iniziative comprende una varietà di questioni legate al contesto, e in parte dipendenti da fabbisogni pregressi; e privilegia investimenti e opere pubbliche, secondo le regole dei fondi strutturali. Ma va detto che le proposte sono complementari alle attività ordinarie o già implementate della città nella promozione di impresa (il centro servizi alla Fiera), nei servizi alle persone, nei programmi culturali.</p>
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		<title>La ville qui apprend</title>
		<link>http://cremaschi.dipsu.it/partnerships-strategie-e-governance-del-territorio/la-ville-qui-apprend/</link>
		<comments>http://cremaschi.dipsu.it/partnerships-strategie-e-governance-del-territorio/la-ville-qui-apprend/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Sun, 11 Oct 2009 14:42:43 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>editore</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[En français]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Partnerships, strategie e governance del territorio]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[creativita']]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[politiche]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://cremaschi.dipsu.it/da-organizzare/la-ville-qui-apprend/</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[<p>La ville qui apprend</p>
<p style="text-align: left">Il est reconnu habituellement qu’une bonne méthode scientifique permet d’éliminer les théories erronées, mais ne garantit pas de produire des idées neuves. Pourquoi en revanche la ville devrait être créatrice d’idées ? Pourquoi demandons-nous à des situations assez souvent compliquées et vulnérables d’être vecteur de créativité ou tout du moins [...]]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><a href="http://cremaschi.dipsu.it/files/2009/10/La-ville-qui-apprend.pdf">La ville qui apprend</a></p>
<p style="text-align: left"><a href="http://cremaschi.dipsu.it/files/2009/10/9-copia.jpg"><img class="size-medium wp-image-98 aligncenter" src="http://cremaschi.dipsu.it/files/2009/10/9-copia-400x229.jpg" alt="9 copia" width="400" height="229" /></a>Il est reconnu habituellement qu’une bonne méthode scientifique permet d’éliminer les théories erronées, mais ne garantit pas de produire des idées neuves. Pourquoi en revanche la ville devrait être créatrice d’idées ? Pourquoi demandons-nous à des situations assez souvent compliquées et vulnérables d’être vecteur de créativité ou tout du moins innovation ?<br />
La réponse, c’est que les acteurs de la ville produisent des idées et des projets, n’importe quelle soit la demande politique: mais si la demande politique n’est pas attentif, ou les acteurs faibles, la créativité s’effondre. Cela peut apparaître un paradoxe mais c’est ce que l’on a observé ces dernières années dans la « politique de la ville », mais aussi dans toutes « les politiques pour la ville », les stratégies urbaines, et les démarches de marketing territorial.<br />
Une des raisons principales de ce paradoxe est que l’action publique de l’Etat est moins efficace que prévu ; une seconde raison est que la société civile ne réussit plus à produire par voie naturelle ces « enzymes » capables de réduire les ruptures et les fractures liées à la modernisation; une autre encore est que la capacité de mobilisation antagoniste des groupes sociaux, bien qu’ils soit petits et émiettés, est plus élevée que leur capacité de médiation constructive.
</p>
<p style="text-align: left">27° Rencontre Nationale des Agences d&#8217;Urbanisme: &#8220;Créa Cité &#8211; L&#8217;Innovation urbaine en débat&#8221;, Dunkerque 15-16 novembre 2006.</p>
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		<title>Partenariato e scambi tra pubblico-privato nelle trasformazioni urbane e territoriali</title>
		<link>http://cremaschi.dipsu.it/partnerships-strategie-e-governance-del-territorio/partenariato-e-scambi-tra-pubblico-privato-nelle-trasformazioni-urbane-e-territoriali/</link>
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		<pubDate>Sun, 11 Oct 2009 14:34:15 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>editore</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Partnerships, strategie e governance del territorio]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Partnership]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Pubblico privato]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Ricerca applicata/Rapporti]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[territorio]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://cremaschi.dipsu.it/?p=92</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt">Partenariato e scambi pubblico-privato 2006</p>
<p>Il tema del partenariato pubblico-privato si presta a una confusione tanto radicata quanto generica. Da tempo, almeno venti anni, è stato fatto notare che nel dibattito sono profondamente intrecciate le riflessioni originate dalla evoluzione delle pratiche di piano e quelle scaturite dalle critiche ideologiche all&#8217;orientamento riformista (della retorica, [...]]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p style="text-indent: 18pt;margin-bottom: 0pt"><a href="http://cremaschi.dipsu.it/files/2009/10/Diapositiva11.JPG"><img class="alignleft size-thumbnail wp-image-95" src="http://cremaschi.dipsu.it/files/2009/10/Diapositiva11-200x150.jpg" alt="Diapositiva11" width="200" height="150" /></a><a href="http://cremaschi.dipsu.it/files/2009/10/Partenariato-e-scambi-pubblico-privato-2006.pdf">Partenariato e scambi pubblico-privato 2006</a></p>
<p>Il tema del partenariato pubblico-privato si presta a una confusione tanto radicata quanto generica. Da tempo, almeno venti anni, è stato fatto notare che nel dibattito sono profondamente intrecciate le riflessioni originate dalla evoluzione delle pratiche di piano e quelle scaturite dalle critiche ideologiche all&#8217;orientamento riformista (della retorica, del battage dottrinale, talvolta perfino del livore ideologico).</p>
<p><span id="more-92"></span>In particolare dagli anni ottanta una vigorosa iniziativa culturale e amministrativa cerca di promuovere forme di piano ‘orientate al mercato’, un termine composito che significa orientamento al sostegno dell&#8217;economia e in particolare degli interessi di alcune categorie di operatori (imprenditori e promotori immobiliari, soprattutto nel più rapido e redditizio settore degli uffici); quando non forme di de-regolazione e privatizzazione tout-court.</p>
<p>E viceversa, l’evoluzione normativa è proceduta fortemente nella direzione della regolazione mista pubblico-privato dello sviluppo fondiario. Negli ultimi venti anni è innegabile che una rilevante quantità di iniziative e politiche pubbliche abbia fatto perno su una varietà o strumenti di incitazione alle partnership.</p>
<p>La caratteristica tipica di queste esperienze incrementali è però di proporsi come pratiche modeste, dai confini spesso incerti e dalla incidenza limitata. Non per questo meno interessanti o problematiche, ma certo quantitativamente poco esaltanti. Ha commentato a questo proposito un protagonista autorevole di questa stagione: “…i programmi delle opere pubbliche contengono ancora richieste molto scontate: parcheggi, opere pubbliche minori di urbanizzazione, e poco altro. Non ho trovato negli elenchi il soddisfacimento di opere di rilievo più complesso: un auditorium, una struttura museale, un centro culturale, un complesso polivalente…” (<a name="sdfootnote1anc" href="#sdfootnote1sym"><sup>1</sup></a>).</p>
<p>Quindi, la prima difficoltà che si trova ad affrontare qualsiasi discussione del ruolo delle partnership nella regolazione fondiaria riguarda il contrasto tra il peso degli argomenti ideologici, e la grana fine delle pratiche. Va subito anticipato che queste ultime sono sempre più limitate e specifiche (anche se non in peso aggregato) di quanto astrattamente possibile. Questo lavoro cercherà quindi di porsi il più possibile ‘a ridosso’ delle pratiche, pur affrontando in via preliminare il contesto più ampio nel quale si pongono, in particolare per limitare la portata del riferimento automatico alle pratiche di mercato.</p>
<p>La seconda questione riguarda la specificità territoriale delle partnership. Anche in questo caso vale una avvertenza: mentre i singoli istituti e accordi sono oggetto di manualistiche specialistiche, per quanto riguarda la trasformazione fondiaria un carattere specifico viene dal contesto territoriale e urbanistico (che influenza fortemente il valore potenziale); e dal contesto programmatico e normativo (dal quale dipende la fattibilità), nel quale i singoli ‘scambi’ sono inseriti. In altre parole, è necessario porre l’attenzione sul fatto che questi ‘scambi’ avvengono sul terreno della regolazione urbanistica, che non è un vero mercato, e che pertanto richiedono l’attivazione di una varietà di strumenti (come vedremo, di accordo locale, di valutazione dei progetti, ecc.).</p>
<p>Lo sviluppo della forma dello scambio nei processi decisionali che riguardano il territorio è materia di diversi approcci e pratiche disciplinari. Con la dizione di PPP si fa solitamente riferimento a un’ampia varietà di fattispecie. La definizione prevalente è estensiva, ed include tutti quegli interventi che comportano uno scambio di risorse (anche finanziarie, ma non solo), diritti, e quote patrimoniali, al fine di realizzare interventi di trasformazione del territorio. Questi ultimi possono essere sia opere pubbliche (infrastrutture e attrezzature: comunque gestite, eventualmente in regime di Project financing); oppure iniziative di interesse privato eventualmente integrate in più ampi progetti. Ci sono dei vantaggi evidenti nel mantenere questa ampiezza di sguardo, dato il carattere in movimento del panorama complessivo.</p>
<p>In seguito, però, si preferirà distinguere due ambiti intermedi:</p>
<ul>
<li>le partnership nel senso 	più vasto, dove sono preponderanti  gli scambi  immateriale 	tra autorità pubblica e soggetti privati, imprenditoriali e 	non, che costituisce un po’ lo sfondo dei processi di evoluzione 	della regolazione amministrativa dello sviluppo fondiario; è 	opportuno ricordare che questo ampia definizione sottolinea gli 	orientamenti di più lungo periodo, e che il problema 	affrontato è principalmente quello di apprendimento 	collettivo (di nuove forme di azione e intervento), mentre gli 	aspetti operativi possono non essere al centro dell’attenzione;</li>
<li>lo scambio tra soggetti 	privati, per lo più a carattere imprenditoriale, e autorità 	pubbliche su singoli interventi, che comporta una specifica forma 	organizzativa, un orientamento politico-strategico, un regime di 	accordo, dove avvengono gli scambi di risorse in contesti altamente 	regolati.</li>
</ul>
<div id="sdfootnote1">
<p><a name="sdfootnote1sym" href="#sdfootnote1anc">1</a> Paolo Urbani, docente di diritto ed esperto di Urbanistica 	negoziata, titolo appunto di un suo libro importante (Bollati 	Boringhieri, Torino, 2000).</div>
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		<title>Riqualificazione e rigenerazione urbana a Roma</title>
		<link>http://cremaschi.dipsu.it/partnerships-strategie-e-governance-del-territorio/riqualificazione-e-rigenerazione-urbana-a-roma/</link>
		<comments>http://cremaschi.dipsu.it/partnerships-strategie-e-governance-del-territorio/riqualificazione-e-rigenerazione-urbana-a-roma/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Sun, 11 Oct 2009 10:55:25 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>editore</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Partnerships, strategie e governance del territorio]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Casa e abitare]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Partnership]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[politiche]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Questione urbana]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Roma]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://cremaschi.dipsu.it/?p=63</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[<p>Presentazione in inglese</p>
<p>Riqualificazione o rigenerazione in Roma</p>
<p>Nel comune di Roma, nel corso degli ultimi 15 anni, sono stati approvati, o sono in corso di approvazione, oltre 300 programmi integrati di riqualificazione. In questo periodo, il numero e la qualità dei progetti integrati territoriali è venuta crescendo. Questo intervento cerca di delineare alcuni elementi di confronto [...]]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><a href="http://cremaschi.dipsu.it/files/2009/10/Cremaschi-Housing-renewal-Notes.pdf">Presentazione in inglese</a></p>
<p><a href="http://cremaschi.dipsu.it/files/2009/10/Riqualificazione-o-rigenerazione-in-Roma.pdf">Riqualificazione o rigenerazione in Roma</a><a href="http://cremaschi.dipsu.it/files/2009/10/105944mappa_copertina.png"><img class="alignright size-thumbnail wp-image-66" src="http://cremaschi.dipsu.it/files/2009/10/105944mappa_copertina-200x150.png" alt="105944mappa_copertina" width="200" height="150" /></a></p>
<p>Nel comune di Roma, nel corso degli ultimi 15 anni, sono stati approvati, o sono in corso di approvazione, oltre 300 programmi integrati di riqualificazione. In questo periodo, il numero e la qualità dei progetti integrati territoriali è venuta crescendo. Questo intervento cerca di delineare alcuni elementi di confronto tra l’esperienza italiana, di Roma in particolare, e quella europea (Cremaschi 2005; Tedesco 2002).</p>
<p><span id="more-63"></span>La questione dell’apprendimento e della trasposizione delle politiche è al centro di questo saggio (Fabbrini 2003). E’ una questione cruciale nello sviluppo delle politiche urbane (Cremaschi 2003), in particolare in paesi come l’Italia dove il confronto tra riqualificazione edilizia, rinnovo urbano e sostegno sociale è acceso e non sempre pacifico (Tosi 2000).</p>
<p>Si può dunque generalizzare un’osservazione che venne fatta alla fine degli anni ’80 sulle politiche di quartiere in Francia. Cominciano ad essere verificate in diversi paesi le premesse (Gaudin 1990) che contraddistinguono la costituzione di un campo di politiche distinto. Tra queste si constata:</p>
<ul>
<li>la congiunzione di settori dell&#8217;azione pubblica fino allora distinti, in particolare quelli relativi alla casa (politica che ha fatto la storia delle città europee durante il boom economico che viene così riassunta in un nuovo contesto) e all&#8217;azione sociale e forse, aggiungeremmo oggi, allo sviluppo locale;</li>
<li>lo spostamento di attenzione dalle politiche di settore alle politiche d’area, rivolte cioè a territori e località specifici, ancorché potenzialmente di scala diversa; volendo generalizzare, si tratta di politiche che trattano più il contesto delle funzioni;</li>
<li>l&#8217;investitura politica o la formazione di un distinto centro –un ministero per la città come in Francia; un assessorato alle periferie come a Roma e in altre città italiane- capace di autonoma decisione sulle azioni integrate.</li>
</ul>
<p>Come vedremo, nella esperienza del comune di Roma si osserva la costruzione di un centro simile, a partire da un problema sociale inizialmente definito come la riqualificazione della ‘periferia’ che, progressivamente, per errori e sperimentazioni, assume una varietà di nuovi riferimenti e riformulazioni.<a href="http://cremaschi.dipsu.it/files/2009/10/105944mappa_copertina.png"></a></p>
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